How Digital Technologies Influence Migration
ACHILLE DE TOMMASO
Computer Science, Anthropology, Science and Information Technology, Biology, . Writer of technologies and Anthropology. CEO of large corporations, CEO of ANFOV. ex Consultant of Soviet Academy of Science and EU
By Achille De Tommaso
Two fields of research allow us to critically examine the impact of digital technologies on precarious migrants and migration regimes: (1) digital migration studies and (2) studies on borders and surveillance, along with security issues. Both fields generate knowledge across various disciplines, including social anthropology, sociology, political science, law, international studies, and communication and media studies.
Research in these two fields demonstrates that, on one hand, ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) can be creatively utilized by refugee populations and other civil society actors to maximize the chances of refugees completing their journeys to destination countries and achieving their aspirations for better living conditions. On the other hand, institutions use these technologies for the control and integration of refugees.
In the early 2000s, some empirical studies highlighted the importance of digital technologies as resources for migrants in vulnerable situations, despite persistent inequalities in access, infrastructure, and digital skills (Diminescu 2002; Horst 2006; Nedelcu 2009, among others). For instance, Diminescu showed that mobile phones have become strategic tools for African migrants to regularize their status in France. Similarly, Horst described how Somali refugees in Dadaab camps (northeastern Kenya) received consistent support from their peers abroad, particularly through a semi-formal communication and banking system managed via phone, fax, SMS, and email.
At the same time, the internet (as I also highlight in the final paragraph) has created a new social sphere that allows refugee populations to find a space to express their claims and identities. Baujard (2008) found that Burmese refugees (based in India and Thailand) used virtual platforms for digital activism, as primary tools for strengthening their refugee identity and expressing political claims. More broadly, refugee diasporas use ICT to gather information and resources that enable them to actively mobilize and act as transnational actors within civil society in their home countries, for instance, by sending remittances. These various examples show that migrants in situations of high precariousness (social, economic, or legal) can make innovative use of ICT.
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The refugee crisis that emerged in 2015 has given new impetus to studies focused on the impact of ICT on migration processes, and Leurs (2018) stated that "the exceptional attention given to the digital mediation of migrant mobility practices is now reflected in a growing area of research in the field of digital migration studies. This growing interest encompasses several processes. A significant stream of research is bringing to light the essential role played by mobile technologies (e.g., smartphones) and social media (e.g., Facebook, WhatsApp) in helping refugees obtain vital information to successfully complete their journeys. Global positioning apps, digital maps, and digital platforms through which experiences are shared within informal networks represent innovative logistics that enable migrants to better navigate the evolving (and often hostile) geosocial environment.”
For example, Gillespie and Osseiran demonstrated that smartphones are as vital as food and water in the journey of Syrian and Iraqi refugees towards Europe. On one hand, these mobile communication tools enable refugees to plan, navigate, and document their journeys while maintaining regular contact with family and friends. On the other hand, smartphones provide the ability to be locatable during movements (i.e., being able to communicate their location to coast guards or family members) and, crucially, to be visible to ensure their survival at sea. During their journey to Europe, refugees circulate collective knowledge about the journey; this knowledge is then gathered and disseminated by other "pioneer" migrants, family networks, and ethnic networks.
However, the same digital tools that provide security to refugees during their passage to Europe can also be used against them. Digital traces can serve hostile, and perhaps non-democratic, political regimes in their countries of origin to monitor political opponents. There is also the risk of relying on misinformation that can jeopardize the migration project by providing false information about the risks of the journey and the possibility of work and integration in destination countries.
Aware of these threats, Syrian asylum seekers in the Netherlands have developed various strategies to validate information from social media (Dekker et al. 2018). These strategies include preferring information provided by personal networks and reliable social ties, as well as linking different sources of information, combined with migrants' personal experiences.
At the same time, there is a growing body of research highlighting various forms of digital activism that give visibility to refugee populations. Firstly, studies on digital diasporas show that the internet has created new public spheres for highly politicized refugee diasporas, which "could allow migrant voices to be heard where political participation is otherwise scarce" (Kissau and Hunger 2008, 6), thus enabling a collective voice of minority groups to emerge.
Some new app-based digital initiatives have led to the development of tech-enabled solutions aimed at "smart refugees" (Dekker et al. 2018; Ennaji and Bignami 2019) regarding the "refugee diaspora" (Leurs and Smets 2018). Notably, a multitude of hackathons (events involving developers and programmers) has facilitated the development of pragmatic solutions and smartphone applications to assist refugees in their journeys. In this way, internet-based initiatives have integrated collective actions initiated by established migrant advocacy and associative environments that traditionally intervene on the ground in favor of refugees in host and transit countries.
Finally, it is worth noting how 4G technology has influenced the increase in migration. Until 3G, communication was primarily based on voice and SMS. With the advent of better data transmission enabled by 4G, not only have free messaging (WhatsApp) and email platforms gained traction, but the improved ability to obtain and send photos and videos has not only been useful for maintaining better contact with family members but has also shown potential migrants, even by travel organizers, images of lands (often unknown) where the quality of life could be better than their current one.
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