How Can the Life Safety Code Assist During Acts of Domestic Terrorism?

How Can the Life Safety Code Assist During Acts of Domestic Terrorism?

First, let me start by expressing my condolences for those deceased and prayers for all those injured, by the recent act(s) of terrorism which occurred in Las Vegas. Unfortunately, this cowardly act may be a prelude of things to come. (Coincidentally, this article was started several weeks before the shooting at the church in Texas). Many questions still remain unanswered, mainly focusing on the motive of the shooter(s). However, there maybe a few unanswered questions regarding the actions, or lack thereof, dealing with crowd management, emergency planning and the use of a Life Safety Evaluation at this event and many like it. Let me add, the opinions expressed in this document, are based upon my experiences working and training crowd managers, creating and assisting numerous occupancies and organizations with evacuation planning and my work within the reorganization of NFPA Life Safety Evaluation. To assist in offering my opinion, there have been multiple videos and news footage coverage of the tragic events of the Las Vegas shooting, as well as other acts of terrorism, both foreign and domestic. 

Most people seem to think that Crowd Management is the physical approach one takes in handling crowds at events. Physical approach is a part of what crowd management entails. While aspects of crowd management can also be permanent; (stairs, ramps, doors, corridors, bollards, fire alarm devices, sprinkler system, etc.) and temporary; (bicycle racks, portable fencing, barricades, stanchions, staffing, etc.), crowd management generally starts with the overall design of the event. Yes, I said design. A crowd management plan often starts with the venue, including within these plans, are the positive and negative coefficients, which could affect the outcome of the event. Ultimately a crowd management plan starts with the design created by the architect(s)/designer(s). Of course lots of communications between all vested stakeholders should take place before the final plans are approved. Approval for every design and for each event is crucial to ensure safe functioning of the event. It’s also a requirement under the code. Yes every design and event needs to be preapproved! So while security measure are very important, so too, are the other features the event may or may not have to offer, both indoors as well as outdoors, permanent or temporary. Oftentimes stakeholders are left out of the planning process, perhaps not intentionally, however for various reasons, these stakeholders are a very important aspect of developing a comprehensive plan. Stakeholders should include, but are not limited to; neighboring venues, businesses, local/federal law enforcement, local/statewide fire code and law enforcement agencies, EMS, private security, transportation experts, weather authorities, various vendors, planning experts, just to name a few. Communications efforts among all vested stakeholders is a crucial part in the overall success of a plan. So while crowd management is often a misunderstood element, mainly among many different professionals, including the fire service, understanding the important role crowd managers play upon the overall success of any event is a key component for its success. Additional elements I intentionally failed to mention; the Human Element factor, training programs/protocols, crowd psychology and People's natural behavior in emergency situations. Keep in mind, the Human Element factor, too, may have played a crucial role in the Las Vegas tragedy.  I am not here to discuss these factors, there are too many variables to consider. In the future, we will revisit this element.

 For over 12 years now, I have been teaching crowd management techniques for the state of Rhode Island. I developed the current crowd managers training programs, not only for the state of Rhode Island but also, the state of Florida. Deemed as an expert, I was asked to assist in the development of the current online crowd managers program for North American State Fire Marshal Association (NASFM). In addition, I've been presenting on this subject matter at various state fire marshal associations throughout the United States, including several of NFPA World Expos. The Society of Fire Protection Engineering Handbook (SFPE) Section 3, Chapter 13, pp. 3-342-3-366 (Proulx, G. “Movement of People”), identifies 5 basic factors that a crowd managers program should include. They are the factors of; Time, Space, Energy, Information and Metering. Time; is needed for people to ingress/egress. Keeping this factor simple and direct, generally makes for a fairly low percentage of risk for those traversing to, from and during the event. Within the Time Factor, one needs to consider the age of the crowd, as well as, occupants with special needs, weather conditions, indoors vs outdoors, type of event, any potential obstacles both permanent or temporary, staffing levels, method of communications and if alcohol is available. These few factors, among other elements, must be considerations within the Time factor. Average Safe Egress Time (ASET) vs. Required Safe Egress Time (RSET) should be calculated into the design for every event. For the Vegas event, there appeared to be plenty of space for both ASET & RSET. Designed for an open aired area, a parking lot to be exact, this venue appeared to be capable and designed for any scale event. Although I am not too familiar with the overall setup of this particular event, and from the video footage of this area, for a large scale outdoor event, one can only assume that they were adequate under normal conditions. In recent years, in addition to my continued work in the field of crowd management, I've expanded my work onto evacuation planning and training procedures. Due to my work, in 2015, I was asked to be a guest panelist at the symposium on Human Behavior in Fire Emergencies, in Cambridge, England. At this symposium, I was one of six panelist tasked with debating if the factor of “Time” was the key element in ensuring occupants safety under emergency conditions. I challenged some of the leading experts in people movement on the premise that most of the results of current fire modeling utilized today, are skewed, because they do not accurately account for people with disabilities. Having a computer simulate the actions of those attending, cannot accurately gage the actions of people with disabilities. A computer program cannot predict reactions or perhaps, lack thereof of actual humans. Although heavily debated, my opinion was concurred by some of the worlds’ leading experts on Human Behavior in people movement.

Space; at an outdoor event, isn't generally much of an issue. However designing a plan to accommodate the specific area for the event, can at times, be faced with many unexpected and uncontrollable variables, and i.e. weather related issues. Both indoor and outdoor locations have their pros and cons. In a building, generally one has various fire safety devices and appliances for protection, that ordinarily you wouldn’t find these features outdoors. With indoor settings there are fixed walls, allotting for only so much occupied areas, generally limiting the occupant load. Outdoors provides for a more flexible setup, thus accommodating more patrons and revenue for the entertainers/promotors. One of the most common forms of audience and spectator accommodations at an outdoor venue, is “Festival Seating”. Often times when a “Festival Seating” arrangement is selected, this particular plan will contribute to additional challenges, as opposed to a “Fixed Seating” event. Also, Festival Seating occupancies may be calculated with a different coefficient (7, 5, 3 sq’pp) as opposed to Fixed Seating which is calculated at 15 sq.’pp. From the perspective of the venue owner/management, “Festival Seating” can accommodate more patrons, thus resulting perhaps in more revenue. Challenged with providing a safe event, owners/promoters/managers, need to outweigh the pros and cons of “Festival Seating” events. Festival seating is a method of spectator accommodations without the availability of seating. Regarding Las Vegas, and from what I remember of this area, it was a pretty large outdoor venue. Designed as open area in front of the stage with bicycle racks separating the vendors, portable restrooms, and barricades separating the stage/audience area. The Las Vegas event raised a question, “as an outdoor assembly occupancy, were the guidelines of NFPA 101 12/13.7.4 Outdoor Facilities followed?” This section also references sections 12/13.1.7.3 and then further references 12/13.4.1.3 in particular A.12/13.4.1.3. Further note: 12/13.2.5.4.1 specifically states; “Festival Seating, as defined in 3.3.237.1, shall be prohibited within a building, unless otherwise permitted by one of the following: 

1) Festival Seating shall be permitted in assembly occupancies having an Occupant load of 250 or less.

2) Festival Seating shall be permitted in assembly occupancies where Occupant loads exceed 250, provided that an approved life safety evaluation has been performed. (See13.4.1)

Furthermore 12/13.2,5.2* must be strictly adhered to regarding the use of Festival Seating. The 2012 Life Safety Code Handbook pages 528 thru 530, within the green highlighted section, explains the importance of dangers that Festival Seating can bring to any event.

Energy; the method to measure the overall impact a performance can have upon the audience. High energy level generally is associated with, let's say, rock n roll events, no matter what the genre. It is also a sign of fun. Low impact music, similar to what one would experience at a folk festival, can also be a sign of fun for the audience. While a multitude of problems can arise from low energy events, most crowd related problems often occur at high impact high energy events. In regards to low impact in relation to the Las Vegas event, I am referring to the crowd appearing not to be overly active in extracurricular activities. Most audiences tend to take direction from the performers and their energy, stimulating the crowd. At this event, the audience appears to be more focused on the performance, rather than outside stimulation. In addition, the type of attire can also contribute to the overall energy. An example of this is, if a crowd is dressed in a more business oriented attire, often times the crowd isn’t going to participate in extracurricular activities, such as crowd surfing and/or fighting. Much of the YouTube videos of the Las Vegas event show many of the audience members partaking of adult beverages and using their personal cell phones to video the concert. Relatively, a subdued group enjoying the music and comparatively unaware of outside stimulation. 

Information; this factor, unfortunately, is one of the main reason why so many problems occur, (poor communications). Information of promoting the event, generally isn't the issue. The problem mostly occurs with the inadequacy supporting planning stages. At least with the events that I am familiar with, plans involving high profile performers/performances may not focus upon external influences; such as social media, weather related issues (example; Indiana State Fair stage collapse in 2012) and most civil unrest. With civil unrest, most often law enforcement steps in becoming the "bad guys"! Who wants to be known as the bad guys, the police? How about the fire marshal? Perhaps not, but most fire marshal, themselves, aren't too familiar with what information is necessary to approve a comprehensive Emergency Action Plan. Let alone as to what information should be included in the plan. Nor are they versed with what a crowd manager is or does. But then again, most people aren’t either. Information as to what direction should be provided to the crowd and what role staff needs to play are some key elements necessary for an efficient plan. Looking back to 1989 Hillsboro Stadium Disaster, where fans were allowed into an already packed stadium, resulting in 96 deaths. Back in 2012, from a New York Times article, some 23 later, then Prime Minister David Cameron, stated; “the families had suffered a double injustice in the failure of the police, fire officials and other authorities failed to have a plan in preventing the situation from occurring once it started.” Or did they have a plan and failed to initiate it? What training had been conducted? Whether visual and or vocal, were directions available and utilized? Information is a crucial element potentially effecting the overall outcome of the event. Knowing what the plans are, and if necessary, who will make the special announcements. (Kind of like the Incident Command Structure) Where are these plans actually kept? These plan, combined with a variety of other supporting elements, should be combined and presented to not only the staff but the first responders as well. Everyone needs to be versed on the communications methods at their particular venue and discipline, at all levels, regarding training. So not only knowing what the plan is, can be just as dangerous as not knowing who will make the announcements and at what time.

Lastly Metering; is the time based control technique use to control the arrival/depart rate of a crowd (a form of measurement for people movement). Stanchion, bicycle racks, ropes, portable fencing, etc., are the basic and most frequently utilized method of metering. Stairs, ramps, inclement weather conditions, indoors vs. outdoors and transportation factors, such as the use of mass transit, which in itself, may complicate things a bit. Keeping the plan simple and direct, is often the best method. Communications can become a crucial step in the prevention of a crowd crush during the metering phase. Knowing when to cue the lines, allowing for people movement, as well as, being able to dictate and/or direct people movement, is a great attribute in the overall health and safety of the event. But are staff prepared or versed in the various metering methods? What training has been done? Most often, at large scale events, outside personnel are brought in to assist with the operations, whose responsibility is it to insure they know the plan? Do they have their own SOP’s? Are they willing to share with others? Are they aware of the various egress routes? Strategic metering methods, although at times time consuming, can provide for the best method to disperse a crowd.

Crowd management planning also includes the elements of; human behavior, crowd composition, crowd psychology, crowds reason for being, motivation of its members and the operating features of the venue. One also needs to know that crowd control is similar to crowd management. Similar on the fact that some of the crowd management plans, are utilized in both factors (crowd management vs. crowd control). As stated earlier, crowd management starts with the design of the venue. Stairs, ramps, fencing, portable barricades, stanchions and the use of bollards, while used for crowd control, are also incorporated in the crowd management planning. Again crowd management methods can either be permanent or temporary. Venue designs, either indoors or outdoors need to have plans established for every event. 

In addition to the crowd managers, venues also need to understand the importance an emergency action plan can have, possibly effecting the outcome of their event, as well as, their business. According to NFPA 4.8.2.1 EAP have 7 key components: 1) Procedures for reporting of emergencies; 2) Occupant and staff response to emergencies; 3)* Evacuation Procedures appropriate to the building, it’s occupancy, emergencies, and hazards; 4) Appropriateness of the use of elevators; 5) Design and conduct of fire drills; 6) Type and coverage of building fire protection systems; 7) Other items required by the authority having jurisdiction. These 7 components, combined with elements of a crowd managers program, can and will attribute to a plans success and the success of the event. In addition too, if required, Crowd management and EAP need to work together, similar to an ingress/egress systems work together like a fined tune machine. In 2016, I became a founding member ANCR Alliance for National Community Resilience. ANCR is a national association founded on the premise of helping the communities plan for sustainability before, during and after a disaster. Based upon the premise of creating an Emergency Action Plan. In June of 2017, I was one of six experts to participate in a high-rise evacuation forum in Toronto Canada. Although not deemed an expert in the matter of evacuation, I've also contributed too many code input/change related materials. I've help two global companies, one Fortune 100, develop their Emergency Response Plans and Teams (ERT). Residing on 3 of NFPA Technical Committees: Means of Egress, Assembly Occupancies and Building Fire and Life Safety Directors. As part of these committees, I have participated in developing new NFPA crowd managers training techniques, and language which were included in the annex section of the 2015 Edition of NFPA 1 & 101. I also assisted in retooling the Life Safety Evaluation (LSE) 2012 Edition and currently, I am hoping to assist in develop evacuation protocols for the Building Fire and Life Safety Directors. 

Now let’s incorporate a Life Safety Evaluation, which according to NFPA 101 12/13.4.1 a Life Safety Evaluation is required by other provisions of the Code, it shall comply with all of the following: 

(1) The Life Safety Evaluation shall be performed by persons acceptable to the authority having jurisdiction. 

(2) The Life Safety Evaluation shall include a written assessment of safety measures for conditions listed in 22/13.4.1.2.

(3) The Life Safety Evaluation shall be approved annually by the authority having jurisdiction and shall be updated for special or unusual conditions. 

Further explanation of what shall be included into a Life Safety Evaluation shall be found in 12/13.4.1.1 thru 12/13.4.1.3. All these parts need to work fluidly together. Lots of emphasis is always placed upon security methods at various events. I understand, there is practically no way to prevent a terrorist act from occurring, especially in “soft target” venues similar to what occurred in Las Vegas. Unless if you’re the President of the United States, with the vast security measures and team that accompany him, there is virtually no way for the average citizen to be protected without copious amounts of resources. However, we (the fire service), need to do adopt more effective proactive educational methods, in order to better assist us, and our communities for better resiliency. 

Regarding the event in Las Vegas, unfortunately we all know the tragic outcome, but could the outcome have ended differently? Perhaps so, however without firsthand knowledge of the original setup and plan, I am not qualified to cast judgement. What I can comment on is the fact that once the gunfire started, and the performers left the stage, the audience was left wondering what was occurring. Most spectators questioned, if the sounds they were hearing were from Fireworks, while others questioned gunfire. However without a formal acknowledgement from event staff, the attendees wasted valuable life saving time to seek shelter. They were seeking direction as to what to do, but there was no directions provided. They waited and waited like ducks on a pond. Like a camouflage hunter waiting in the brush, the shooter(s) preyed upon his victims. Isn’t communications a part of your Emergency Action Plan, Life Safety Evaluation and Crowd Managers Training? Announcements, for every emergency situation are supposed to be in place for every event. But is an act of terrorism included in everyone’s plan? In today’s climate, I’d like to think so. Maybe some larger venues, along with site specific performances and/or events may include some portion of heightened security features to warrant off acts of terrorism. Most venues both large and small, lack sufficient SOP’s to handle such conditions. Why is this? Have we become so complacent with the thought “it may not happen to me” attitude or “I don’t want to scare off my patrons” or “I don’t have enough employees” or “it will cost too much”! Excuses, excuses excuses! I’m not suggesting that every assembly occupancy needs to retrofit their venues as a military outpost, however efficient that maybe, it’s not realistic. Perhaps understanding the tools and resources that are already in place, can provide for better resiliency. Understanding how to develop a comprehensive Emergency Action Plan, and/ or preparing a Life Safety Evaluation and/or development of a comprehensive Crowd Managers Training program. Although these plans compliment the other, each are specifically required for certain occupancies: Emergency Action Plans are required in almost every occupancy chapter. A Life Safety Evaluation is required for assembly occupancies over 6000. And Crowd Managers are required for all assembly occupancies. 

In closing, as a professional code official, I am excited to know that the Life Safety Code is just that a Life Safety Code. As a human being, I am disheartened to see the continued acts of terrorism both foreign and domestic which, not only creates life challenges but possess many questionable acts. As the fire service, our method to better defend against acts of domestic terrorism, possibly reside within the binders of the Life Safety Code.  Such turmoil in our daily lives poses many questions as to what can be done. While our mechanism to ward of such acts of domestic terrorism are not, in large, weapons of mass destruction, they are in fact, words within the binders of the Life Safety Code. But first, we need to learn how we can better utilize these materials ourselves, in order to help combat our deviants. While our defense is a good offense, let’s work together in assuring that everyone understands the power that the Life Safety Code possesses. Maybe then we will be able to successfully defend against and ward off certain acts of domestic terrorism. And while plans cannot stop an electronic or machinery based projectile, plans can assist in lessening the potential carnage, which may result from such acts. Codes are enacted, mostly because of a reaction towards a previous, sometimes tragic, event. Looking back at the Sandy Hook shooting, recently, there was a push to retrofit existing school classroom locks, with secondary locking mechanisms. However and after a pushback from several Code officials, technical committee members, member of the ADA Committee and the door hardware manufacturers, this possible code change was defeated. Mainly because, within the Life Safety Code, there are already exist approved mechanisms allowed within the code. We’ve become a reactionary society and demand changes today. Let’s start taking more proactive measures to help make our world a safer place. After all, the oath of the fire service is “Life Safety and Property”. But at what cost to the consumer and possibly, good code officials? Many talented professionals, as well as, many lives were lost, resulting in the development of the Life Safety Code. And while our world is constantly evolving, morphing sometimes faster than we’d like, let’s enact and enforce proactive measures in helping to ease our world safely. While stupid acts will always occur, I leave you with this one question: How Can the Life Safety Code Assist During Acts of Terrorism? 

Vincent Quinterno, CFI

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