History of Psychology

When compared to other scientific disciplines, such as human physiology, for which experimental studies didn't begin until much later, psychology might be thought of as a young science. As was previously established, prior to the 19th century, anyone curious about mental processes often did so within a philosophical framework. It is generally agreed that two men from the nineteenth century established psychology as a separate scientific and academic field from philosophy. William James and Wilhelm Wundt were their names. From Wundt and James to the present day, this section will provide an outline of the paradigm shifts that have affected psychological thought.

Structuralism

Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) was the first psychologist. His 1873 work Principles of Physiological Psychology is well known. Psychology's purpose, according to Wundt, was to uncover consciousness's components and how they joined to create our conscious experience. Introspection, or "internal perception," allowed Wundt to study the mind like any other part of nature. Wundt's introspection utilized only very particular experimental conditions in which an external stimulus was designed to induce a scientifically detectable (repeatable) mind experience (Danziger, 1980). The first strict criterion was "trained" observers who could promptly see and record a reaction. The second criterion was repetitive stimuli that gave the individual the same experience and allowed them to expect and focus on their inner reaction. These experimental procedures were implemented to avoid "interpretation" in the reporting of internal experiences and to refute the claim that no one can truly see their mind or consciousness since it cannot be seen by others. Structuralism studied the mind's structure. Wundt founded his psychology lab at Leipzig University in 1879 (Figure 2). Wundt and his pupils tested reactions in this lab. A subject would get a light, image, or sound in a room away from the scientist. A device would record the time to react when the subject pushed a button. Wundt measured reaction time to one-thousandth of a second.

His efforts to educate others on introspection fell short, however, because the process remained extremely subjective and participants rarely reached a consensus. With the passing of Wundt's student Edward Titchener in 1927, structuralism lost much of its support.

Functionalism

As the first North American psychologist to advocate a novel approach to the field, William James (1842-1910) revolutionized the way psychologists think about their work. James learned about Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection and came to agree that it can explain the diversity among living things. That theory hinges on the assumption that organisms, including their behavior, get suited to their environment as a result of natural selection. Because of natural selection, an adapted characteristic in an organism serves a purpose crucial to the organism's ability to survive and reproduce. James advocated a viewpoint known as functionalism, which held that the field of psychology existed to investigate the role that actions play in society. Mind-body compatibility was the central concern of functionalism. While structuralists focused on the various components of the mind, functionalists were more concerned with how the mind as a whole worked. James, like Wundt, thought introspection could be used to study mental activities, but he also relied on more objective measures, such as the use of various recording devices and examinations of the tangible results of mental activities as well as of anatomy and physiology.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Sigmund Freud was a major figure in psychology. Austrian neurologist Freud (1856–1939) was attracted to "hysteria" and neurotic patients. Hysteria was an old diagnostic for diseases, mostly in women, with somatic and emotional symptoms without a physical basis. Freud believed the unconscious caused many of his patients' issues. Freud believed the unconscious mind held unconscious feelings and desires. Thus, accessing the unconscious was essential to solving the patient's issues. Freud believed dream analysis, first words, and harmless slips of the tongue might reveal the unconscious mind. Psychoanalytic philosophy, which emphasizes the unconscious and early infancy, dominated clinical psychology for decades.

Studying lifetime development, personality, and therapy will illuminate Freud's concepts. Many therapists believe in the unconscious and the lasting effects of early childhood experiences. Freud did not invent psychoanalysis, but he popularized it and it is being used today. Freud's other views are debatable. Many of Freud's critics ignore his later writings, according to Drew Westen (1998). Westen also claims that critics overlook Freud's broad ideas, such as the importance of childhood experiences in adult motivations, the role of unconscious versus conscious motivations in driving our behavior, the fact that motivations can cause conflicts that affect behavior, the role of mental representations of ourselves and others in guiding our interactions, and the development of personality over time. Westen finds research backing all of these beliefs.

Modern Freud's clinical approach is effective. Psychotherapy generally examines the unconscious self and relationship characteristics through the therapist-client connection. Freud's historical relevance and clinical practice deserve his inclusion in psychology's historical movements.

Gestalt Psychology

German psychologists Max Wertheimer (1880–1943), Kurt Koffka (1886–1941), and Wolfgang K?hler (1887–1967) fled Nazi Germany to the US in the early 20th century. These men taught US psychologists Gestalt principles. Gestalt psychology emphasizes that while a sensory experience can be broken down into parts, how those parts relate to each other as a whole is often what the individual perceives. For instance, a song is made up of individual notes played by different instruments, but its melody, rhythm, and harmony reveal its true essence. This viewpoint challenged Wundt's structuralism.

Unfortunately, going to the US prompted these men to forsake much of their work and stop large-scale study. These factors and the growth of behaviorism in the US precluded Gestalt psychology from being as influential in North America as in Germany (Thorne & Henley, 2005). Despite these limitations, Gestalt principles remain prevalent. Late in the century, humanistic theory focused on the whole person rather than its parts. Gestalt has shaped sensation and perception study.

Structuralism, Freud, and Gestalt psychologists all sought to explain the interior experience. Other academics were wary about studying interior experience and instead focused on behavior, the objectively observable result of mental processes.

Behaviorism

Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) pioneered behavior research. Pavlov researched conditioned reflexes, in which an animal or person reflexively responded to a stimulus and then learned to respond to a different stimulus that the experimenter connected with the original stimulus. Pavlov used food-induced salivation. A unique sound delivered numerous times with the initial food stimulus could activate the salivation reflex. After "learning" the second stimulus, the food stimulus could be removed. Behaviorists study more than Pavlov's "classical conditioning."

John B. Watson (1878–1958), an outstanding American psychologist, did his most notable work at Johns Hopkins University in the early 20th century (Figure 5). Watson believed consciousness research was defective, unlike Wundt and James. Watson focused on visible behavior and tried to regulate it since he believed objective mind analysis was impossible. Watson promoted behaviorism, which focused on watching and regulating behavior rather than the mind. Behaviorists studied learned behavior and its effects on inborn traits. Behaviorism assumed that animal research could be applied to human behavior. Tolman (1938) stated, “I believe that everything important in psychology (except... such matters as involve society and words) can be investigated in essence through the continued experimental and theoretical analysis of the determiners of rat behavior at a choice-point in a maze.”

Behaviorism dominated experimental psychology for decades, and its effect remains (Thorne & Henley, 2005). Using objective methodology and testing, behaviorism helped establish psychology as a science. Behavioral and cognitive-behavioral therapy also employ it. Classrooms use behavior modification. Behaviorism has also spurred environmental study on human behavior.

American psychologist B. F. Skinner (1904–1990). Skinner, like Watson, studied how consequences affected behavior. Thus, Skinner emphasized reinforcement and punishment in driving. Skinner built a chamber to examine reinforcement and punishment. An operant conditioning chamber, or Skinner box, has been essential for behavior researchers.

A lever or button in the Skinner box indicates behavior. The box can supply food, noise, or a token conditioner (such a light) when the animal presses the button or lever.

Since cognitive psychology research has grown, Skinner's emphasis on positive and negative reinforcement of learnt behaviors has faded. Human behavior modification still uses conditioned learning. Skinner's two contentious popular science works on operant conditioning and happiness continue to inspire (Greengrass, 2004).

Humanism

Behaviorism and psychoanalysis dominated early 20th-century American psychology. Some psychologists were dissatisfied with narrow perspectives influencing the field. They disagreed with Freud's pessimism and determinism (unconscious acts). Behaviorism’s reductionism also bothered them. Behaviorism views human behavior as wholly governed by heredity and environment. Some psychologists started emphasizing personal control, intentionality, and a true tendency for "good" for self-concept and behavior. Humanism resulted. Psychology's humanism emphasizes humans' inherent goodness. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow are well-known humanistic psychologists.

Abraham Maslow (1908–1970) proposed a hierarchy of human needs to motivate behavior. This chapter will briefly introduce this notion. Maslow believed that social needs would motivate behavior after fundamental requirements like food, drink, and shelter were addressed. Self-actualization, or reaching our full potential, is Maslow's highest desire. Humanistic perspectives emphasize positive human traits (Thorne & Henley, 2005). Humanistic psychologists criticized reductionist experimentation because it neglected the "whole" person. Maslow and Rogers insisted on humanistic research. Humanistic psychology includes quantitative research on happiness, self-concept, meditation, and psychotherapy outcomes (Friedman, 2008). This program has been mostly qualitative.

Like Maslow, American psychologist Carl Rogers (1902–1987) stressed the good in everyone. Rogers employed client-centered therapy to assist clients resolve concerns that led them to psychotherapy. Client-centered treatment puts the patient in charge, unlike psychoanalysis, where the therapist interprets conscious behavior to reveal the unconscious mind. For this strategy to work, Rogers believed a therapist needed unconditional positive regard, authenticity, and empathy. The therapist unconditionally embraces their client no matter what they say. Rogers thought that people could handle their own problems given these criteria (Thorne & Henley, 2005).

Humanism shaped psychology. Maslow and Rogers are well-known to psychology students (you will learn more about them later in this course), and their theories have influenced many experts. Today, psychotherapists employ Rogers' client-centered approach.

Emergence of Cognitive School

Psychologists had neglected the mind due to behaviorism's emphasis on objectivity and external behavior. Early humanistic psychologists focused on the complete person as a conscious, self-aware being. By the 1950s, new insights in linguistics, neurology, and computer science renewed scientific interest in the mind. Cognitive revolution (Miller, 2003) describes this perspective. Ulric Neisser wrote the first cognitive psychology textbook in 1967 (Thorne & Henley, 2005). It was used in courses nationwide. Noam Chomsky's early influence on the cognitive revolution is undeniable. Behaviorism's impact on psychology upset American linguist Noam Chomsky (1928–). He argued that psychology's concentration on behavior was short-sighted and that the science needed to re-incorporate mental functioning if it wanted to understand behavior (Miller, 2003).

The cognitive revolution restored communication between European and American psychologists, who had never been as impacted by behaviorism as Americans. Psychologists also collaborated with anthropologists, linguists, computer scientists, and neuroscientists. The cognitive sciences, an interdisciplinary approach, shaped modern psychology (Miller, 2003).

Multicultural Psychology

Despite its obvious significance, the influences of culture on psychology have received comparatively little attention. Betancourt and López (1993) point out that it is risky to generalize psychological theories and data from white, North American contexts to people and social groups from other cultures.

Looking for differences in psychological traits between cultures still requires more than just descriptive statistics, which is a limitation of the subject of cross-cultural psychology (Betancourt & López, 1993). As such, it has continued to be a descriptive science rather than one that attempts to establish causation. Hispanics, African-Americans, and Caucasians all differ significantly in how they present for treatment of binge eating disorder, according to a 2012 study (Franko et al.). However, the study failed to account for the possibility that the discrepancies could have been caused by factors that were not examined.

?