History of Cocoa Use in Latin America and Exploration of Modern Implications for use in the Treatment of Type 2 Diabetes

Origin Story            The history of the cocoa bean begins with several origin stories. The stories about the origin of this amazing plant have both mundane and divine connections in the Mesoamerican world. One story begins approximately a thousand years ago in Mayan Central America. Supposedly, a Maya Indian walking deep in the rainforest picks an odd-shaped fruit from a native tree, opens it and sees the beans within. Upon tasting the beans, he is disgusted and throws the pod, seeds and all, into a burning fire. Soon the savory smell of the roasting beans gets his attention and prompts him to retrieve the pod from the fire. He grinds the toasted seeds, mixes them with hot water and chocolate, as we know it, is born. Some stories say because toasting of the seeds (beans) is needed in order to make them palatable, the inner fibrous pulp was likely the first part of the cocoa pod consumed by ancient Mayans.

Divine Connection            Divine origins have been associated with the humble cocoa bean in a variety of tribal groups. Among the Aztec people, cocoa was believed to be a gift of Quetzalcoatl, the winged, serpent God of wisdom. Among the Olmecs, cocoa was used in religious rituals and as a medicinal drink rather than for personal enjoyment. Codices from the post-conquest era detail divine association among the Mayan with the rain deity, Kon, (Dresden Codex). The belief that that gods shed their blood on the cacao pods as part of its production (Madrid Codex) led to the idea that the substance had the ability to impart aphrodisiac powers and strength to the drinker. An annual festival honoring the cacao god of the Mayans, Ek Chuah, involved marking a sacrificial dog with cacao, which was then killed. Other sacrificial gifts included the practice of self-lancing of the ears that was done by Aztec priests in honor of Quetzacoatl. The scientific name of the cacao tree is Theobroma, which is Greek for “food of the gods” (theos= “god” and broma= “food.”)

Growing Cacao            The Theobroma grows well in tropical areas, preferring a hot, humid environment. One of the benefits of growing this crop is that the pods may be harvested at any time of year and may include multiple harvests per year (Young, 2001) (Wood, 1994). The pods are susceptible to insect and fungal infestation, so pesticides are often used, especially in some of the larger growing operations. An interesting feature of the cocoa pod is that the pods grow directly off the tree rather than off distant limbs which increases the ease with which they are harvested (Wood, 1994). Unfortunately, the harvesting is complicated by the fact that the pods do not ripen simultaneously but must be judged ripe via their coloring (Gockowski & Oduwole, 2003). The ripe pods are harvested with a great care using a curved knife because each successive pod growth stems from the same sites previously harvested, so damage done to the tree will hamper future pod development (Gockowski & Oduwole, 2003). Given that a person familiar with the process can harvest 650 pods per day, it is possible to retrieve approximately 13,000-39,000 seeds per harvester daily (Gockowski & Oduwole, 2003).

Harvesting & Processing Cacao            The cacao pods are hand-collected and the pods are generally opened with a machete. Once the beans are exposed, they and the previously prized pulp that was historically fermented into an alcoholic beverage are collected and laid out to dry. There is a process known as “sweating” during which the pulp liquefies (melting away from the seeds) which is then discarded (Gockowski & Oduwole, 2003). The sweating process help relieve the beans from their bitter taste, without this critical step, the beans would taste similar to raw potato and are easily infected with mildew (Gockowski & Oduwole, 2003). The pulp is still used in some limited capacity for distillation into alcohol in Colombia (Gockowski & Oduwole, 2003). Ultimately, the beans are dried for between 5 and 14 days on large trays in the sun. Similar to the process of preserving potatoes in the Andes, people stomp bare-footed on the drying beans to encourage the drying as well as the polishing of the final product (Gockowski & Oduwole, 2003).

Chocolate in Pre-History            Evidence found in ceramic cooking vessels indicate that cocoa may have been cooked by the Mesoamerican people as early as 1900 BC and the pulp may have been fermented and served as an alcoholic beverage as early as 1400 BC. Evidence of use of ground cocoa beans has been can be traced to the Mokaya and other pre-Olmec people. The Aztecs are credited with elevating the cocoa bean to an important status within the Mesoamerican culinary tradition. The Aztec influence in the promotion of the cocoa bean was primarily a reflection of their inability grow cacao themselves, which they remedied by forcing all conquered areas to grow cacao beans for tribute. Under the Aztec influence, likely due to its use as tribute, the cacao bean became a form of currency. The cost of a new cloth mantle, turkey hen or a canoe of fresh water was roughly 100 beans. Approximately 20-60 beans are found per ovoid-shaped pod and many pods grow on each small tree. The tribute given to the Aztec empire is estimated at approximately 980 loads of beans annually (with each load composed of approximately 8,000 beans.) It takes approximately 400 dried beans to make 1 pound (WCF, 2014).

Etymology of Chocolate            Many possibilities have been suggested in regards to the etymology of the word chocolate. It is theorized that it comes from the Aztec language due to the existence of the word xocoatl which means "bitter water" in the Aztec Nahuatl. There is also a theory that the "choco-choco” grinding sound made by the processing of the dried beans combined with the "atl" sound, which means water in several Mexican native languages, were combined to form the word as we know it today. It is also possible that cacao is derived from the Aztec word cacahuatle, which was derived from the Olmec word kakaw, used around 1000 B.C.                                          

Poor Reception in Europe            Supposedly upon drinking the Mayan chocolate drink, Columbus spit it out in disgust. The story goes that during his fourth trip to Guanaja Island, off the coast of Honduras in 1502, Columbus and his men encounter a canoe sailed by a Mayan tribe member hauling precious goods for trading from the Yucatán peninsula. The canoe contained salt, quetzal feathers, pyrite, obsidian, jade, jewelry and what the Spaniards thought were almonds. During the confiscation of the goods, some of the “almonds” spilled and Fernando, Columbus’ son, noticed how eager the Indians were to retrieve the spilled beans. Based on this behavior, Columbus’ son (and presumably Columbus) began to understand that the beans had value to the natives. This idea was confirmed when, upon the raiding of Moctezuma’s royal treasury, Hernan Cortez found more than 1 billion cocoa beans.

            Columbus sent some of the valuable beans back to Europe; however, their particular charms were of limited appeal to the Europeans. Traditionally in Mesoamerica, the high-caffeine chocolate drink enjoyed by natives was a savory drink; occasionally spiced with chilies, herbs and flowers. It was not until Spanish nuns at the Guanaco convent in South America (c. 1530 AD) improved the drink by adding sugar and vanilla. After the drink was presented in its sweetened form, the drink became a popular European treat.

Cocoa Drinks in Mesoamerica            Unlike the European enjoyment for the sweetened version of chocolate, the Mesoamerican version of chocolate was prepared from dried and roasted beans which were ground into a thick and coarse paste on a metate (stone hand-grinder) and flavored with herbs and spices, such as flower petals, seeds, vanilla, chilies, honey, corn flour. Once the beans are ground into a thick, fatty paste, it is formed into tablets to be dissolved in hot or cold water and whipped until frothy. The importance of the development of the foam cap on the Mesoamerican chocolate drink was often associated with a female’s domestic skills. There are folktales that reinforce the idea that a woman who can create the thickest, tallest foam head by rapidly spinning the handheld molinillo in the cooking chocolate will have the best suitors and will have no issue finding a husband. Before the invention of the molinillo, the thick cap of foam was created by pouring the liquid chocolate back and forth into different vessels from a distance of several feet.

Medicine in the ancient world            In the ancient world, chocolate was not drank for pleasure, but was primary used as an herbal remedy and as a vehicle to deliver bitter or foul-tasting medicine. The Badianus Codex (1552) identifies the use of the plant’s flowers to treat fatigue, while the the Florentine Codex (1590) associated the use of cacao beans for the treatment of fever, breathing, and heart issues. Additional manuscripts from 16th- early 20th century detail more than 100 medicinal uses for cacao. Medicinal uses can be divided into 3 main issues: 1) to treat emaciated patients to gain weight; 2) to stimulate nervous systems of apathetic, exhausted or feeble patients; and 3) to improve digestion and elimination. For the purpose of masking foul tastes, the paste was used a medium used to administer drugs and counter the taste of other bitter herbs. However, other parts of the plant were used as well; the bark, oil (cacao butter), leaves and flowers were used to treat burns, cuts and skin irritations (Dillinger et al., 2000).

Modern Usage            Many modern medical research studies have been published validating the possible medicinal uses of the cacao bean. According to a study by Serafini et al. (2003), chocolate may have anti-inflammatory action and the consumption of chocolate may lead to a decreased tendency for the blood to clot. This result is particularly important to those with high platelet counts that are correlated with increased risk for stroke (cerebrovascular infarction) and micro occlusions that support cumulative tissue damage in the small vessels for the eyes.

            Findings of Grassi et al. (2005) demonstrated that dark chocolate, in particular, may decrease blood pressure and improve insulin sensitivity in healthy persons. Also, according to a study done by Steinberg, Bearden & Keen (2003), flavonoid-rich chocolate consumption was found to contribute positively to maintaining cardiovascular health by affecting multiple factors. The promotion of chocolate consumption to support cardiovascular health represents a viable complementary medicine (due to its positive association in modern culture and its relatively few side effects).

            The validation of the three primary realms of medicinal uses mentioned above: promotion of gain weight, nervous system stimulation and improved digestion and elimination can be easily attributed to the high fat, and caffeine content as well as the mimicking of endogenous opioids created by the human brain during moments pleasure that are naturally occurring in chocolate.

Chapurrado            Hispanics are almost twice as likely to be diagnosed with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) by a physician, have higher rates of advanced complications and are 50% more likely to die from T2DM than non-Hispanic whites. Hispanic cultural practices support the use of herbal supplements to promote wellness and decrease blood sugar in those with T2DM; however, healthcare practitioners do not routinely promote the use of herbs, such as chocolate or cinnamon, with known anti-hyperglycemic properties, as an adjunct to traditional treatment in these patients.

            Findings from a review of current literature evaluating the evidence of efficacy of cacao and cinnamon as an adjunct treatment for hyperglycemia for persons with T2DM, as well as an exploration of cultural dietary practices among elder Hispanics with T2DM that supported the use of these substances via atole drinks. Literature review performed via PubMed supported positive findings resulting from consumption of these substances in persons with T2DM; anti-diabetic effect resulted from increasing glucose transporter isotype-4 (GLUT4) gene and glycoprotein contents in fat cells, which facilitated glucose entrance into the cell. Additional beneficial findings included improved male fertility. Culturally appropriate cinnamon-containing drinks were identified: horchata and champurrado, (known as an atole drink, is a thickened, meal-replacement meant to be drunk warm). Implications for the field of nursing indicate that chocolate consumption via atole drinks represents an interesting avenue of diabetes research and complimentary /integrative medicine for Hispanics with Diabetes.

Oaxacan Cooking with Chocolate            Traditional cooking in Oaxaca, a mountainous, moist and hot region of Mexico, has incorporated the use of savory chocolate in its cooking. In addition to the drinking chocolate mixed according to individual taste in chocolate mills in tiendas de chocolate, customers can have the roasted beans ground with spices and roasted chili peppers for making a thick sauce known as mole (ICO, 2014).

            The word mole is thought to be derived from the Nahuatl word molli “sauce”. Similar to the history of the cacao bean, the story of mole’s history is part history, part fiction and part myth. Supposedly, the nuns of the Convent of Santa Maria were desperate for a dish to serve a visiting Archbishop (Mexico: Terra, 2010). They prayed and became inspired to use the local ingredients; they combined chili peppers, spices, day-old bread, nuts and unsweetened chocolate. What resulted has become a very popular dish served internationally that fully expresses the options for use of chocolate in more complex ways than as a sweetened drink (Mexico: Terra, 2010).

Cacao and Exploitation            The history of the cacao bean remains complicated due to its current, ongoing role in the subjugation and exploitation of the native people that harvest it. The cacao trade has jumped continents from Latin America and is now primarily located in West Africa in the countries of Ivory Coast and Ghana (WCF, 2012). These countries currently supply approximately 70% of the world’s cacao beans (Mistrati & Romano, 2012).

            Recently evidence has been presented to the public via expose films and publications identifying the use of child labor (and slavery) in the production of cacao on farms in West Africa (Sackett, 2008). This 60 Billion dollar industry, largely controlled by international companies (including Hershey’s, Mars and Nestle,) been implicated in exposing children to severe environmental hazards (machetes and pesticides) at best and the use of physical violence and imprisonment at worst (ICO, 2006). This unchecked situation led to a powerful statement made by a freed slave who said “When people eat chocolate, they are eating my flesh” (Sapoznik, 2010).

            Despite public knowledge of human rights issues, the most prominent chocolate companies have done little to ameliorate suffering or rescue or rehabilitate the child victims (10 Campaign, 2000). There has been some effort to promote the labeling of chocolate in a way that a consumer can choose chocolate that is grown and processed under humane condition (as it often is in South America,) however Hershey’s, one of the largest and most powerful chocolate companies has resisted this labeling and does not release details about the origins of the chocolate that it sells (Feely, 2014). Currently, companies such as UZT and Rainforest Alliance (who label their chocolate as being grown sustainably and humanely,) were found to use child labor in their growth and processing of the beans (Mistrati, Miki, & Romano, U. Roberto, 2012).

It seems unlikely that any consumer can, at this time, determine whether the chocolate they purchase is sustainably harvested and this human rights issue would benefit from greater exposure in the media.

Conclusion            The varied, exciting and sometimes upsetting nature of the history of cacao in Latin America and the world appears to be, if anything, continuing to expand and evolve. Despite concerns about the human rights issues associated with these valuable beans, people continue to enjoy chocolate for it flavor profiles, textures and ability to be delicious as either a sweet or savory treat. The possibility of using chocolate in research for cardiovascular disease and Type II Diabetes Mellitus is an exciting future direction that may be explored and one that may support ethical treatment within the industry.

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