An Historical Review of Student Retention

The study of student completion has been a topic of analysis over several decades. This information contributes to the body of knowledge on interventions to increase access, completion and achievement at all levels of higher education (Sandoval-Lucero, Anthony & Hepworth, 2017; Jacoby, 2013). Student completion relates to social and instructional engagement, precollege preparedness, gender, age, race, social economics, as well as internal and external support systems (Senecal, 2017; Martin, Galentino, & Townsend, 2014). The results from the research show students of minority backgrounds are more at risk of not completing educational endeavors due to adverse social and economic factors (Martin, Galentino, & Townsend, 2014). In his earlier work, Tinto (1975) proposed students' decisions to persist or discontinue education were based on academic and social integration within an organization through a longitudinal process. According to Tinto's model, students integrate into to a school based on academic and social backgrounds before entering the institution. When students can relate to the systems implemented by a higher education institution, they are more likely to make decisions to persist and complete (Tinto, 1993).

Theoretical framework. Over the last 40 years, student retention researchers have yielded several scholarly definitions (Tinto, 1975; Tinto, 1993; Bean, 1980; Hoyt & Winn, 2004) According to Tinto (1993) student retention is defined as students’ achievement of educational goal set forth by institutions. Student retention can also be defined as students’ ability to integrate academically and socially into higher education organizations and develop positive experiences and attitudes toward educational processes (Bean, 1980). According to Hoyt and Winn (2004) students who decide not to complete can be categorized into subpopulations including drop-outs, stop-outs, opt-outs, and transfer-outs. Students are considered drop-outs when they fail to complete an intended degree program (Tinto, 1993). Stop-outs are students who start a program, stop for a particular reason, and later restart (Hoyt & Winn, 2004). Opt-outs are students who have achieved a particular goal which was not the goal of degree completion (Hoyt & Winn, 2004). Transfer-outs are students who start a degree program at a particular college or university then transfer to another institution before completing the degree program (Hoyt & Winn, 2004). Understanding the different categories of students who fail to complete college degree programs is important to implementing proper retention strategies (Hoyt & Winn, 2004). Theoretical frameworks for student retention focuses on one of two questions:

1.  Why do students stay in school?

2.  Why do students leave school?

Most researchers focus on the factors that attribute to why students decide not to complete a higher education degree (Jacoby, 2013; Martin, Galentino, & Townsend, 2014). A gap in the research exists regarding what colleges and universities do right in the process of retaining students (Hoyt & Winn, 2003). Tinto’s work in student retention has been the prevailing framework used by many researchers when analyzing student completion (Tinto, 2010). Tinto’s Student Integration model focuses on the factors that attribute to why students decided not to complete college (Tinto, 1993). The model focuses on the background and academic achievement of students before entering college as key factors in completion commitments. Additionally, the model focuses on the student’s ability to integrate academically and socially into higher education institutions. According to the Tinto (1993), if the values and beliefs of the organization do not align with those of the student, the student is likely to drop-out. When social and academic integration is successful, commitment to college completion is reinforced (Tinto, 2010). Social integration within a higher education institution refers to students’ experiences with extracurricular activities and peer interactions (Tinto, 1993). Academic integration refers to students’ experiences with academic performance, faculty, and staff (Tinto, 1993). The body of knowledge on student retention indicate four conditions must exist to retain students (a) expectations, (b) support, (c) feedback and, (d) involvement (Tinto, 2010).

Expectations. When entering college many students do not have a clear understanding of what to expect socially and academically from higher education (Tinto, 2010). Nontraditional students are less likely to have accurate expectations of college compared to traditional students due to a lack of prior experiences with higher education (Mutter, 1992). Nontraditional students are more likely to be the first in their families to attend college (Bettinger, Boatman, & Long, 2013). Students need to know what to do to be successful in a course, in a degree program, and within a higher education organization (Tinto, 2010). Students’ expectations are usually shaped by the experiences of friends and family, interactions with peers, coursework, advising, mentoring, and support programs (Tinto, 2010). Students learn about expectations in courses through interacting with faculty, course material, and syllabi. Students learn how to be successful in degree programs through interacting with advisors and learning requirements for completion. Students learn how to be successful in college environments through social support programs and groups (Markus & Zeitlin, 1993). Students’ experiences are shaped by formal and informal knowledge developed before or after entering college (Tinto, 2010).

Support. Support is important in helping students achieve the expectations set forth by the organization. Institutional support can be offered to students through academic, social, and financial support (Tinto, 2010). A lack of proper support can cause students to struggle and decide not to complete a college degree program (Markus & Zeitlin, 1993). Nontraditional students are more likely to require support to successfully complete college (Bettinger, Boatman, & Long, 2013).

Academic support. The most important support that students can receive is academic support. Academic support is particularly important to first year college students (Tinto, 2010). If students who need support do not get it in the first semester, they are less likely to complete college. Over half of the students who start college are academically unprepared and require some type of academic support such as remedial courses to tutoring services (Tinto, 2010; Kuh, 2008). Students who attend community colleges are more likely to need academic support than students who attend four-year colleges and universities (Arseneau, 2015; Garcia, 2016). Students who require academic support most often need help in reading and math (Garcia, 2016). However, research shows that students who struggle most in reading are less likely to complete college than students who struggle most in math as reading is the primary foundation for college courses (Tinto, 2010). Additionally, access to remedial courses do not increase students’ success alone, students’ ability to successfully complete remedial courses increases the probability of college completion (Cohen & Brawer, 2003). Academically prepared students also require support services (Tinto, 2010). Most first-year students need support to adjust to the new demands of college. Many colleges and universities offer social support through freshmen seminars and study-skills courses (Mahlberg, 2015). Most new college students need some level of academic support regardless of preparedness level. When students are successful in the first year of college, they are more likely to develop the efficacy to continue and complete (Tinto, 2010). According to the social cognitive theory, students’ perceptions of their academic performance affects their efficacy for future performances (Bandura, 2011). Support programs help students develop the efficacy to complete future college courses and graduate (Tinto, 2010).    

Social support. Supporting students socially is important in increasing college completion as students are required to create new relationships once they transition into higher education learning environments (Mahlberg, 2015). Creating relationships with peers helps students develop a sense of acceptance and belonging (Tinto, 2010). When students create affiliations within the higher education environment, they are more likely to engage in stable learning environments (Crisp & Delgado, 2015). When students fail to develop relationships, they run the risk of marginalization and isolation which adversely affects college completion (Crisp & Delgado, 2015). Non-traditional students are most at risk of not successfully developing the social networks to increase college completion efficacy (Garcia, 2016). Higher education organizations have implemented support services such as counseling, peer mentoring, and advising to help students build positive social networks (Stewart, Lim, & Kim, 2015). Colleges and universities also implement centers and groups to support the differences among populations such as ethnic, gender, and special interest groups. These centers offer social and emotional support and help students develop cognitive maps for completion (Tinto, 2010). Students most often view the availability of social support programs as the supportiveness of the organization regarding their academic, social, and personal needs (Tinto, 2010).

Feedback. Students and faculty are most successful when they are provided with rich feedback. When people are informed about their progress on a regular basis they have a clear understanding of performance and how to improve (Xu & Jaggars, 2014). Consistent and constructive feedback is most important in the development of first-year students as they learn about higher education environments and expectations (Garcia, 2016). Feedback also helps organizations determine what support services would be most useful to students. For example, “early warning” systems help faculty inform students of progress early in courses allowing the student to take corrective steps before grades are affected (Tinto, 2010). Assessments are often used inside and outside of the classroom to gain a better understanding of students’ preparedness and abilities. Faculty are also given assessments to determine teaching styles and opportunities for improvement. Feedback provided to higher education administrators is also important in determining students’ perceptions of experiences and quality of support (Tinto, 2010).

Involvement. The level in which students engage in the learning environment can determine educational outcomes. Engagement is especially important in the first year of college as this is when students develop an academic foundation that includes affiliations with faculty and peers and cognitive maps for completion. Involvement is also particularly important for underprepared students as it works as a motivation tool for those struggling academically (Xu & Jaggars, 2014). Engagement can, directly and indirectly, affect students’ academic performances. When students are able to connect with faculty and peers they are more likely to successfully complete courses and integrate into higher education environments (Tinto, 2010). Faculty help students with engagement through in-class group assignments and institutions help students with engagement through implementing mentoring programs and multicultural centers. When students spend more time inside and outside of the classroom engaging academically and socially in learning environments, they become vested in the educational process and are more likely to graduate (Tinto, 2010). However, student engagement in higher education environments is not a direct predictor of college completion but rather students’ perceptions of those interactions often determine their decisions to persist or drop-out of college (Tinto, 2010). When students perceive positive engagement experiences within college environments, they are more likely to complete courses and degree programs.

Book a lecture with Dr. Kimbrel regarding student retention and online learning at [email protected]