Global Citizenship Education through International Mindedness

A gestation period

Over the last 18 months I have been giving quite a lot of thought to what it means to be an IB Educator. That in part came from completing an MA in Educational Leadership at Keele University where questions around professional identity and Global Citizenship Education where often at the front of a view of international education as a primarily a produce of globalisation and neo-liberal / neo-colonialism. The article below was originally a response to a task within the course.

A Humanistic project

While it is argued that Cosmopolitan Education and Global Citizenship Education had their? genesis in the crisis of democracy at the start of the 21st century there is an older tradition of GCE, through its sibling and juxtapositioned concept, International Mindedness (IM) (Osler, 2005: 1–4; Davy, 2011: 4; Marshall, 2011: 412; Hill, 2012: 250; Wright and Buchanan, 2017: 71; Palmer, 2022: 4–5).?

International Baccalaureate (IB) schools and education are uniquely placed to offer insights into the opportunities and challenges that implementing GCE affords. International Mindedness as a catalyst for GCE? is central among the frameworks promoting global education and within the IB it has been the overarching construct at the heart of the IB institutional identity since its inception in the 1960s as a constituent part of its educational programmes (Hill, 2012: 251; Hacking et al., 2018: 4; Bunnell, Fertig and James, 2020: 248; Gardner-McTaggart, 2021: 342; Palmer, 2021: 259; Bunnell et al., 2022: 717).

IM is one of a range of? “fuzzy” conceptualized frameworks of both GCE and Global Citizen (GC), straddling idealistic and practical implications, often as polarising stances and contested spaces (Marshall: 414; Oxley and Morris, 2013: 303; Bunnell and Poole, 2022). This plurality exists within contrasting agendas between interpretations but is also widely viewed as a valuable addition to twenty-first-century education (Marshall: 413–414; Gardner-McTaggart and Palmer 2018:? 269; Hacking et al., 2018: 3; Palmer, 2018: 134).

Roots of IB International Mindedness

IB IM is foundational within the aims of the organisation, as promoting multilingualism, intercultural understanding and global engagement as a vehicle for peaceful co-existence (Hill, 2010, 2012). This centres IM deeply within the philosophy of the? IB Mission as an aspirational call:?

IB Mission

“The International Baccalaureate? aims to develop inquiring, knowledgeable and caring young people who help to create a better and more peaceful world through intercultural understanding and respect.

To this end the organization works with schools, governments and international organizations to develop challenging programmes of international education and rigorous assessment.

These programmes encourage students across the world to become active, compassionate and lifelong learners who understand that other people, with their differences, can also be right.” (IBO: 2020)

IB IM is not articulated through a single policy document or set of documents, rather it is an ambiguous and multifaceted construct, embracing abstract understandings which have been described as a “non-disciplinary, multivalent, nebulisation” (Palmer, 2022: 3) interpreted uniquely within the context of each IB school (Cause, 2011: 35; Wright and Buchana: 80). It is also a concept which has changed over time as the IB has spread across the globe. Moving from its 1960s beginnings initially focused on intercultural understanding, language learning and human rights, then positioned to embrace sustainability and awareness of global issues in the late 20th century to today where it has started to grapple with issues of equity (Hill, 2012: 245; Singh and Qi, 2013: 1; Jurasaite-O’Keefe, 2022:? 2; ECIS, 2023).

According to Bunnell et al IM should be “woven into the fabric of the school, from the hallway displays which articulate each attribute [of the Learner Profile], to the forms of pedagogy and micro-level interactions between students and teachers” (724) at the heart of the “institutional primary task”, the delivery of an” internationally minded curriculum” of an “Ideal” international school (Leach, 1969; Hill, 2014: 177; Bunnell, Fertig and James, 2017:? 306).

Wright and Buchanan drawing on the writing of Karen Taylor, former Director of the International School of Geneva, viewed as the archetype “ideal” “ideological” international school, suggest Global Citizenship involves a curriculum which engages students in developing an understanding of global issues “in a spirit of openness to difference”(70), itself harking back to the IB Mission (Bunnell, Fertig and James, 2017: 305; Wright and Buchanan: 70).

IB Standards and Practices 2020, the rules through which schools become IB World Schools via an extensive authorization process, The IB Learning Profile, the 10 attributes the IB programmes encouraged and developed in learners, each curriculum document and position paper, all either make direct reference to IM or link back to the principles which guide IM (Singh and Qi: 13; IBO, 2018, 2019). These principles are articulated further within What is an IB Education? (IBO, 2019) setting the purpose of and defining IM as:

?“to develop internationally minded people who recognize their common humanity and shared guardianship of the planet. Central to this aim is international-mindedness.?

International-mindedness is a multifaceted concept that captures a way of thinking, being and acting characterized by an openness to the world and a recognition of our deep interconnectedness to others.” (2019,? 2)?

Therefore the origin and starting point of IB IM is as a? “framework for students to ‘make sense of the complexities of the world around them” and “take responsible action for the future”(IBO, 2017:? 1) while aiming to develop “internationally minded people who recognize their common humanity and shared guardianship of the planet” (IBO, 2019:? 2). It is within the shared values and IB Programme emphasis on developing students as lifelong learners who make an impact on a complex and interconnected world where IM is principally articulated (Palmer, 2022: 1).

Challenges within International Mindedness

While GCE, as IM, is part of the DNA of the IB, it is not without criticism as a “fuzzy” concept (Singh and Qi: vi; Bunnell, Fertig and James, 2017:? 313; Wright and Buchanan: 69; Gardner-McTaggart and Palmer:? 269; Bunnell, 2019a:? 190; Palmer, 2022: 2). It has been argued that a conflict exists between the ideological foundation and expression of IM as a universal concept and the instrumentalism at play in the parental choice of fee-paying IB Schools (Savva, 2013: 189; Gardner-McTaggart and Palmer: 268; Palmer, 2022: 1). This has been particularly noted given the rapid growth in “international” education over the last two decades and the access now afforded to a transactional middle class in the Global South to this globalized marketplace (Cambridge and Thompson, 2004:? 161; Gardner-McTaggart and Palmer: 296; Palmer, 2022: 2).

This has led to accusations of Neocolonial Western liberal humanist ideals operating in prominence over local or geographically wider cultural foundations (Tamatea, 2008: 56; Singh and Qi: 2; Hacking et al., 2018: 4–5).

This is further amplified through the under-representation of ‘other” cultures, ethnic diversities and minority groups, which remains a feature of many international schools globally (Savva: 185). In this IM has been contrasted against “multiculturalism” and “interculturalism”, often within state school settings, leading to a questioning of the origins of IM and who IM is catering for as a “conduit” of advantage for social groups within a globally connected elite and emerging locally based Global Middle Class (GMC) (Savva: 185; Kenway and Fahey, 2014: 185–186; Bunnell, 2019b: 2).?

This conceptualization of “Western” and “Non-Western” has itself been challenged as contested and debatable (Singh and Qi:? 2). And while it has been acknowledged that “superior Western knowledge [is] challenging, annihilating or marginalising the local knowledge,” (2) it has also been highlighted that the concept of both “Western” and “Non-Western” are “malleable” inaccurate and anachronistic (Singh and Qi:? 2; Poonoosamy, 2018:? 223). As Haywood (2007) argues “there is no monopoly on the right way to think and act internationally and the educator ought to avoid any form of indoctrination even if well intended” (85).

Whilst cosmopolitan education and learning are often theorized as a looking out with growing globalized networks and a reaction against growing nationalism, the IB grounds IM, as primarily a set of epistemic virtues “guiding students in establishing a balance between allegiance to nation and allegiance to humankind” (Davy: 4; Marshall:? 412). This focus on both local and global runs throughout IB Curriculum documentation as succinctly articulated within the IB Diploma Environmental Systems and Societies (ESS) course where

“Although the ESS course requires the study of environmental systems and societies at a range of scales, from local to global, the teaching of the course should be firmly grounded in the local environment.” (IBO, 2015:? 8).

Or Through the Middle Years Programme Individuals and Societies course where

“The study of individuals and societies helps students to develop their identities as individuals and as responsible members of local and global communities.” (IBO, 2014:? 4).

As Poeck and O?stman (2020) have suggested ’engagement with real-world societal problems ….[can]....open up a space for newness, creativity, freedom and pluralism’ (1003).

Further, this notion of IB IM as a problematic framing of GCE, presented through rising elitism where International education is no more than a form of transnational capital has also been challenged.

Over 50% of IB schools are within the state sector rather than private education (Hacking et al., 2018: 5). This adoption requires educators in national systems to “buy into” the IB philosophy and promotes IM by “encouraging teachers to continually and authentically bring the outside world into the classroom” (Hegseth, 2023:? 2). State schools have adopted IB programmes, particularly in the USA, in part because of the importance placed on understanding of others in diverse multicultural settings as is the case in many US school districts (Hill, 2012: 254; Hacking et al., 2017:? 29).

While it has been recognised that many IB International Schools operate as “islands” outside of the control of national educational structures and pressures often associated with national citizenship education, reducing patriotic attachment to the nation-state, it has also been shown that The IB Programmes have the flexibility to incorporate local and national requirements within national systems, creating opportunities for local engagement through IM. (Ladson-Billings, 2005: 70; Hill, 2012:? 255; Hacking et al., 2017:? 98; Bunnell, 2021:? 561; Hegseth:? 4). Hegseth argues that in schools in the USA that have implemented the IB Primary Years Programme (PYP) a cultural change occurs through IM and the IB’s holistic philosophy and its focus on “language and language learning, learning through language and learning about language” (4), including home language which may be different to the working language of the school and the work towards embodying the IB Learner profile which all IB schools undertake (8). This is in sharp contrast to the picture presented of an either/or proposition of citizenship found within the experience of many cultural groups within the USA, and their experience of schooling and assumption of citizenship equaling a white identity for all (Ladson-Billings: 75).

International Mindedness as the Context of IB Education

What is apparent within the research undertaken around IB IM is that as a concept its interpretation differs greatly between schools within various cultural and national settings, often depending on the mindset of leaders to embrace IM as an embedded philosophy (Singh and Qi:? 3; Hacking et al.: 2018, 14). At a personal level, this resonates. As an IB school leader who identifies as a Welsh republican, stuck with having to hold a British passport as a UK Subject whilst also a post-BREXIT resident of France the notion of IM holds much greater significance than any conceptualisation of “British Citizenship”.

With experience only in IB Schools and no deep formative journey in UK state sector education or its internationally projected elite arm Cambridge International Exams, an export expression of “British tradition” or arguably more correctly “Englishness”, as a counterpoint to IM this is amplified (Bunnell, 2019b:? 6; Bunnell, Courtois and Donnelly, 2020:? 692). Therefore my personal affinity with IM comes as much as an “outside other” within the normative projection of national citizenship (Kastoryano, 1993: 35; Ladson-Billings: 70; Osler: 16; Sheen, 2017). It has also been greatly influenced as a narrative professional identity through more than a decade of working within mainly locally-centred IB Schools in East and South East Asia.?

This has been exemplified as Programme Coordinator and as the Head a three-programme IB Continuum K-12 Schools in Korea, Vietnam, Kerala and Malaysia. Each school establishing open access to IB Education for students within South East Asia, many who are not able to afford the fees traditionally associated with IB schools in the region. Grounded not in a facebook moment philanthropy but rather in the tradition of philosophical IB Schools, offering generous scholarships and bursaries, to allow access beyond neo-middle class and elite families, very different from the often projected non-selective “international” schools where the fee structure itself becomes a major barrier (Tamatea: 61; Savva and Stanfield, 2018: 183).?

In India an exclusively local Indian student body and in Malaysia students drawn from the three communities Malay, Chinese and Tamil as well as students from China, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, India and Bangladesh but no Western students. As Tamatea (68) has shown in a study of IM through the implementation of liberal humanism within International Schools in Malaysia, many parents chose the school because as ‘English” working language schools they are attracted initially by instrumentalism and social mobility associated with the IB Diploma leading to global universities. As a counter offering Korean or Vietnamese or Chinese or Malay as first language (literature) subjects throughout the school as well as English, and a priority of local language acquisition subjects acts as a vehicle of student agency over nebulous benefits of far off European one for those who are both from the region or further away (Gardner-McTaggart, 2016: 17; Hacking et al., 2017:? 66; Savva and Stanfield: 183; Metli and Lane, 2020: 215).

As a Diploma Programme Coordinator in Korea and Vietnam, one a continuum school the other semi continuum much was undertaken to embed local beyond global through navigating local needs and adherences in preference to Flags and Festivals (Tamatea: 61) In Korea in particular promoting the IM ideals of shared guardianship, through both national and regional outreach. Student council working directly with female rights groups and animal welfare through educational outreach, building on concepts of similarity and connectedness to others rather than highlighting difference (Osler: 19) .?

While it is often argued that international IB Schools project soft colonialism by employing a majority Western faculty, the schools I have worked in or led over the last decade have been widely diverse (Singh and Qi: 7; Hacking et al., 2017: 37; Gardner-McTaggart, 2021: 343; Poole and Bunnell, 2021: 288). I as a White Western male I have often been the minority, within schools in Kerala and Malaysia, where local faculty illustrate that ability and "whiteness" are not related.

This growing diversity of IB educator nationality found across many schools brings a range of perspectives, philosophies and even political alignment to the curriculum beyond the argued normative automatic orientation to Western colonies of knowledge (Kenway and Fahey: 190). This is further strengthened in schools where senior leadership positions are are also open to and held by non-western educators, helping shape contextual responses to daily events much more in terms of now and where we are, than in the baggage of assumptions carried from a solely Western context which perpetuates the colonizer's gaze (Harshman, 2017:? 70).?

The Opportunity of International Mindedness

Beyond its embedded place within the IB philosophy, curriculum and pedagogical approaches, IM creates a space within the IB as a context for both formal and informal collaboration within the IB community as a whole (Jurasaite-O’Keefe: 3; Palmer, 2022: 7). As curricula for Global Citizenship the IB programmes “explore the many dimensions of citizenship a child experiences growing up” (Davy:? 4). Though this is not without its problems and can through an uncritical approach be no more than teaching about differences rather than using difference as a lens of teaching (Tamatea: 71; Singh and Qi:? 38). However, it is IM in the context of each school where these conflated abstractions may best be examined and space created for interpretation of the process of IM in developing a notion of “belonging” within a global community that its strength may lie, as a glue of shared identity (Bunnell et al.: 723–724; Palmer, 2022: 11)

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