Gender Identity Issues and Integration of Immigrant and Refugee Women in Canada

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Introduction

Gender integration in Canada is a complex and multifaceted issue that requires ongoing attention and comprehensive approaches. Many research studies have been conducted on gender integration in immigration and refugee policies in Canada. While Canada has made some progress in advancing gender inequality, there are still significant challenges that need to be addressed. One of the key challenges is the integration of immigrant and refugee women, who often face additional barriers due to their unique experiences and circumstances. These barriers include language barriers, cultural differences, and limited access to employment opportunities (Canadian Council for Refugees, 2006). Such factors can lead to isolation and economic insecurity, thereby impending the complete integration of immigrant and refugee women into Canadian society.

Some successes have been achieved in applying a gender-based analysis to immigration and refugee policies, but these efforts have been limited by the government’s prioritization of other policy objectives (Canadian Council for Refugees, 2006). Despite these limitations, it is crucial to recognize that gender integration cannot be fully addressed solely through immigration and refugee policies. The settlement and integration experiences of newcomers are integral to the success of Canada's immigration and refugee programs. In order to effectively address the issue of gender integration for immigrant and refugee women in Canada, it is necessary to examine how their economic integration is linked to their refugee status. It is important to investigate whether refugee women and sponsored women face additional barriers in terms of economic integration compared to other immigrant categories. Moreover, to effectively address the issue of gender integration for immigrant and refugee women in Canada, it is important to consider the intersectionality of their identities and acknowledge the various dimensions that shape their experiences. This includes considering their refugee or immigration status, as well as other intersecting factors such as race, religion, and socioeconomic background.?

Policy Context

Refugees to Canada come from a range of nations, displaying the historical course of global emergencies such as those in Hungary, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Iraq, Afghanistan, Syria, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Columbia, Chile, Haiti, Sudan, Somalia, Rwanda, the Congo, Ethiopia, and many more. Over time, Canada has taken on the responsibility for offering shelter and assistance to refugees fleeing persecution due to human rights violations, including individuals within the LGBTQ2S+ (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, Queer, and Two-Spirit) community. Canada resettled a total of 40,615 refugees between 2015 and 2016. The gender distribution among these refugees was relatively balanced, with women accounting for approximately 47.9% and men making up about 52.1% (Statistics Canada, 2019). These individuals originated from various countries such as Syria, Afghanistan, Iraq, the Democratic Republic of Congo, as well as Latin American nations. Additionally, during the period spanning from 2017 to 2018, Canada faced an influx of new asylum claims amounting to around 55,400 cases (UNHCR, 2018a). It is worth noting that around 19,000 individuals who filed for asylum crossed into Canada from the United States. The information reveals that the refugees who have been resettled in Canada are a varied and heterogeneous group, encompassing varying identities, experiences, and socio-demographic traits such as gender, age, ethnicity, religion, socioeconomic background, and level of education. Acknowledging this diversity holds significant significance when devising strategies for both resettlement and integration. Moreover, this recognition also bears implications for broader provision of services as well as social rights (Kimani-Dupuis et al., 2021). While the statistics highlight the diverse nature of the refugee population in Canada, it is crucial to recognize that these individuals possess a wide range of identities, experiences, and socio-demographic characteristics. This diversity encompasses factors such as gender, age, ethnicity, religion, socio-economic background, education levels, and country of origin.

Sexual and Gender-based Violence

The concept of gender, being a socially constructed idea, implies that understandings of femininity and masculinity vary across cultures and different geographical locations throughout history. This includes how power dynamics between men and women, as well as parents and children, are established and regulated. Canadian statistics indicate that women face a 20% higher vulnerability to sexual and gender-based violence compared to men (Kimani-Dupuis et al., 2021). More importantly, refugee women and girls, along with individuals who identify as LGBTQ2S+, experience an even greater risk of such violence when compared to other groups of women in Canada due to intersecting experiences involving racism and discrimination (Kimani-Dupuis et al., 2021).

The reconfiguration of family structures triggered by changing gender roles and evolving family dynamics (due to forced displacement) poses a significant risk for instances of sexual and gender-based violence targeted at women, girls, and LGBTQ2S+ refugees. Research conducted by Seitz (2017) has demonstrated that sexual and gender-based violence against refugee women and girls is closely associated with abuse resulting from immigration status, whereby legal status heightens vulnerability and aggravates their experience of violence. Seitz (2017) noted that individuals who identify as LGBTQ2S+ among the refugee population not only confront sexual and gender-based violence but also encounter discrimination originating from homophobic attitudes. This stems from the fact that asylum claims, or refugee status are often contingent on a sponsor, leaving female survivors, young girls, as well as non-binary individuals reliant on family members or sponsors who perpetrate these acts (Kimani-Dupuis et al., 2021).

Gender Identity Issues

The gender identity issues related to immigrants in Canada can include experiences of discrimination and challenges in accessing support and resources. Immigrants who identify as transgender or non-binary may face intersecting forms of discrimination based on both their gender identity and immigrant status. They may encounter barriers in finding employment, accessing healthcare, and obtaining legal recognition of their gender identity. However, it is important to note that changing one's name and/or gender marker does not affect immigration status in Canada, as long as the individual has the necessary identity documents (Gailits et al., 2022).

Gender Identity Issues before the Immigration/Application Process

??????????? Immigrant groups often face significant challenges due to migration. The factors that contribute to migration, the process itself, and how the host population receives them all play a crucial role. Refugee groups experience pre-migratory stress as well as trauma from war, torture, rape, and natural disasters. These experiences heighten their vulnerability to common mental health issues like anxiety and depression, along with post-traumatic stress disorder. Research on the psychological well-being of young people in Afghanistan reveals that approximately a quarter of the participants expressed having suicidal thoughts. Furthermore, nearly 66% of these individuals reported going through traumatic experiences related to war. According to Hyman et al. (1996), adverse events and stressors prior to migration significantly contribute to mental health issues and disorders among children. Specifically, refugee children who have been exposed to both natural calamities and human-induced disasters are more susceptible to developing conditions such as depression, anxiety, anger problems, and psychosomatic symptoms. Moreover, the process of migrating and adapting to a new culture can be overwhelming and potentially increase the likelihood of mental health problems and illness (CMAH, 2009).

Stempel and Alemi (2021) state that numerous Afghan refugees have faced severe and life-threatening traumas both before and during their migration. They are still grappling with depression and anxiety disorders, including a high incidence of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which can hinder or obstruct their economic progress. The considerable distress they experience, along with psychological disorders, restricts their ability to find employment and may affect their parenting skills, ultimately impacting the psychological growth and educational achievements of their children. Gender identity issues can also impact the integration of immigrant and refugee women in Canada even before the immigration or application process begins. For instance, Falc?o et al. (2022) state that women who identify as LGBTQ+ may face additional challenges and discrimination in their home countries, which may be a driving factor for seeking asylum in Canada. These women may have experienced systemic oppression and violence based on their gender identity and sexual orientation, making it crucial to have inclusive and supportive policies and practices in Canada. To effectively address these challenges, it is necessary to develop gender-sensitive immigration and refugee policies that consider the unique experiences and needs of immigrant and refugee women with diverse gender identities. Moreover, it is crucial to ensure that gender-based analysis is applied to immigration and refugee policies to identify potential differential impacts on women. By considering the intersectionality of gender identity with other factors such as race, religion, and socioeconomic background, policymakers and service providers can better understand the specific gender-related challenges and barriers that immigrant and refugee women may face in their settlement and integration process (Canadian Council for Refugees, 2006).

Impact of Immigration Policies on the Expression and Recognition of Gender Identity

In 2017, Canada made history as the first country in the Americas to permit its citizens to use an "X" category on their passports. This move aligned Canada with other countries like Australia, Denmark, Germany, Malta, New Zealand, and Pakistan that also offer gender-neutral options. Additionally, countries such as India, Ireland, and Nepal provide various third options for gender identification. The introduction of the "X" designation was a significant step toward advancing equality for all Canadians regardless of their gender identity or expression. The immigration minister at the time emphasized that it was crucial for every Canadian to feel safe in expressing their chosen gender identity. Advocacy groups in Canada applauded this change. Helen Kennedy, executive director of Egale - a Canadian organization advocating for LGBT human rights - commended Canada's acknowledgment of the challenges faced by non-binary individuals as well as those who identify as intersex or trans. However, Kennedy also noted that while having a gender-neutral option is positive progress, there are still underlying issues that need addressing. In order to enhance the safety and rights of non-binary, intersex, and transgender individuals, Canada must take further steps to advocate at an international level for the removal of gender markers on passports. Additionally, existing barriers that hinder gender autonomy within the country need to be dismantled.

Busby (2017) raised concerns about potential difficulties faced by individuals who identify as "X" when attempting to enter other countries. Adrienne Smith, an immigration lawyer based in Toronto specializing in transgender legal matters, also expressed deep concern regarding the implications this may have in countries like Uganda and Jamaica where being LGBT is deemed illegal. In these places, laws exist that criminalize identifying as transgender. These circumstances leave people vulnerable to arbitrary detention and subject them to scrutiny and degrading treatment at airports. It is crucial for Canada to address these issues through diplomatic channels and engage with other nations on human rights matters pertaining specifically to non-binary, intersex, and transgender communities. By doing so, we can work towards a more inclusive global society that respects individual autonomy without discrimination or harm.

Gender Identity Issues During the Immigration Process

It is important to consider the specific challenges faced by sponsored women and refugee women in their integration process. The sponsorship process can bring its own unique challenges for immigrant women. Stempel and Alemi (2021) highlight the potential barriers faced by sponsored women, such as dependence on their sponsor for support and the limited choices they have in terms of employment and financial autonomy. This can result in a power imbalance and vulnerability for sponsored women, as they may feel obligated to comply with their sponsor's wishes to maintain their status in Canada.

Chen, a transgender woman who faced persecution in Hong Kong due to her gender identity fled to Canada, seeking a place where she could live authentically. However, upon arriving in Toronto, Chen encountered a setback when Canadian immigration officials informed her that she would be identified as "male" on her refugee protection claimant document, which was her only valid form of identification in the country. This news left Chen shocked, upset and in tears (Hill, 2020).

According to government policy, an asylum seeker's immigration documents must align with the information stated on their foreign passport. This requirement remains unchanged even if an individual has undergone hormone therapy or gender confirmation surgery and now identifies differently from their assigned sex at birth (Hill, 2020). Since arriving in Canada, Chen has experienced feelings of isolation and anxiety about leaving her apartment because she fears being asked for identification that contradicts her true gender identity. The misgendering by the Canadian government exacerbates these feelings and makes her feel undervalued compared to others.

Discrimination based on factors such as sex, race, national or ethnic origin, sexual orientation and gender identity is prohibited by the Canadian Human Rights Act. The Ontario Human Rights Code also prohibits discrimination on grounds of sex or gender identity. Moreover, according to a policy from the Ontario Human Rights Commission aimed at preventing discrimination based on gender identity and expression, a person's self-defined gender identity is fundamental to their self-determination, dignity, and freedom. It further states that individuals whose gender identity differs from their assigned sex at birth should be treated in accordance with their lived gender for legal and social purposes. In terms of official travel documents like passports or permanent resident cards, the federal government allows citizens, permanent residents and accepted refugees to change their sex or "gender identifier" through completion of a simple one-page form (Hill, 2020). However, for asylum seekers whose cases are still pending, including those who claim persecution based on their LGBTQ2 status, they face significant barriers in changing their identification documents to reflect their true gender. According to the policy set by Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC), the only way for them to update their gender information is by first altering the details on their foreign passport. This poses an insurmountable challenge for individuals like Chen. Having fled Hong Kong due to persecution and enduring the alleged theft of her business by family members after coming out as a trans woman, Chen's situation is complicated further because she had married a woman before transitioning. Given that same-sex marriage is illegal in Hong Kong, even if she could change her original passport (which she cannot), it would potentially invalidate her marriage. Ashley Fisch, Chen's lawyer, strongly criticizes this policy: "It is completely unacceptable that the Canadian government would knowingly participate in a system that discriminates against individuals based on their gender identity and expression." The current regulations create unnecessary hurdles and perpetuate unfair treatment towards refugee claimants seeking recognition of their true selves (Hill, 2020).

According to Dr. June Lam, a psychiatrist at the gender identity clinic at Toronto's Centre of Addiction and Mental Health, “misgendering individuals who identify as transgender or gender diverse can have detrimental effects on their mental health. This includes an increased risk of suicidal thoughts and actions.” Dr. Lam further explains that by misgendering these individuals, the Government of Canada is perpetuating the same systemic oppression that they are trying to escape by seeking refuge in Canada. These barriers serve to reinforce the notion that our society devalues their life and identity. While Dr. Lam acknowledges that Canada is generally safer for LGBTQ2 people compared to other countries, he emphasizes that forcing them to use identification documents that disclose their assigned sex at birth rather than their lived gender puts them at a higher risk of both physical and psychological harm (Hill, 2020). "It's as if transgender individuals constantly have to prove themselves before our government for who they truly are," Dr. Lam asserts.

Hill (2020) further states that it is crucial for us as a society to recognize and respect each individual's self-identified gender without imposing outdated societal standards or assumptions based on assigned sex at birth. Doing so will help create an environment where everyone feels valued, safe, and supported in expressing their true selves. The plight faced by refugees seeking accurate gender documentation exposes systemic flaws within immigration policies. These obstacles not only compound existing hardships but also hinder access to basic rights such as healthcare and employment opportunities. A more inclusive approach must be adopted so that all individuals can freely express who they truly are without fear of discrimination or invalidation from bureaucratic systems. Chen's story highlights the challenges faced by transgender individuals navigating through systems that fail to recognize their true identities. Despite seeking refuge in a country known for its inclusivity and acceptance, Chen continues to face barriers that compromise both her dignity and sense of belonging. It is crucial for society as a whole to acknowledge and respect each person's self-identified gender without imposing restrictive labels or bureaucratic hurdles. Only then can we create an environment where individuals like Chen can truly thrive as valued members of our communities (Hill, 2020).

Gender Identity Issues in Settlement

During the settlement and integration process, there are various gender identity issues that immigrant and refugee women may encounter. One of these issues is the lack of access to gender-specific services and support. Many settlement programs and services may not adequately address the unique needs of immigrant and refugee women, especially those with non-binary or transgender identities (Zivot et al., 2020). This can result in feelings of exclusion and limited access to essential resources such as healthcare, housing, and employment opportunities. Furthermore, gender identity issues can also affect the safety and well-being of immigrant and refugee women. For example, those who identify as transgender or non-binary may face discrimination, harassment, and violence based on their gender identity.

Employment Search and Support

Gender identity plays a vital role in societal formation by shaping social roles and expectations. Societies often adhere to a strict male/female binary, shaping the behavior, roles, and expectations of individuals based on their gender identity. This binary concept of gender is maintained through social institutions, activities, and behaviors such as dress codes, use of facilities, and the presentation to authority figures. Social expectations of gender identity also shape roles one may assume in society. However, Dietert and Dentice (2009) claim that this normative gender binary arrangement can limit nonbinary identities. Transgender people challenge this rigid concept of gender by expressing identities that do not conform to the gender norms associated with their sex assigned at birth.

Dietert and Dentice (2009) outline various workplace experiences of transgender individuals, including: (1) Coming out in the workplace: for some, coming out was dependent on their comfort level with coworkers and management, considered in relation to fears of harassment or job loss. For others, their transition happened before they entered the workplace, hence they kept their transgender identities 'stealth'; (2) Lack of Support: Many individuals faced lack of understanding or acceptance from coworkers and management during and after their transition. For example, a refusal to use preferred pronouns or respect the individual's transition (e.g., acceptance of a name change) was common; (3) Fear of job loss and discrimination: Even with legal protection, some transgender individuals fear losing their jobs or facing other discriminatory practices because of their gender identity. The lack of federal laws specifically targeting transgender discrimination in the workplace was noted as a persistent issue by Dietert and Dentice (2009).

Moreover, the fragile nature of employment opportunities available to refugees casts a shadow that looms heavily over their quest for stability. The uncertain landscape of work, marked by precarious job prospects, accentuates the housing and food security challenges. As refugees navigate language barriers, unfamiliar work environments, and a dearth of recognition for their foreign qualifications, their ability to access consistent and decently paying work remains severely hampered. This, in turn, directly affects their capacity to afford housing and nutritious food, further reinforcing the cycle of vulnerability.

Education and Literacy

The percentage of immigrant and refugee groups with a university degree is higher than the national average in Canada. From 2001 to 2006, more than half of the individuals who migrated to Canada possessed higher education qualifications (CMAH, 2009). This trend was expected to lead to lower rates of mental health issues and illness among immigrant and refugee populations. However, research has indicated that refugees, especially those with higher qualifications, face greater challenges in their new environment. The inability to find employment at their previous level often leads to a loss of social standing, which negatively impacts their overall well-being. Reports released by Statistics Canada (2019) reveal that majority of the immigrants experience difficulties in the job market compared to individuals born in Canada, despite having similar qualifications. Although immigrants are more likely to hold a university degree, they earn lower incomes than their Canadian-born counterparts and are more likely to reside in low-income neighborhoods. Surprisingly, thirty percent of male immigrants with a university degree end up working jobs that only require a high school diploma as minimum qualification level. These findings suggest that while education plays an important role for immigrant populations in achieving economic stability and improved mental health outcomes; there are still significant barriers preventing them from fully utilizing their skills and earning potential upon arrival in Canada.

Perceived Discrimination

The experience of racial discrimination can increase the risk of mental health problems and illnesses among individuals belonging to minority groups. This is a multifaceted social issue that manifests itself in various ways, ranging from overt acts of racism or violence to more subtle forms such as stereotypes perpetuated by the media. Discrimination in the workplace and unequal access to services are significant contributors to economic disadvantage. In Canada, there is an argument that poverty has a racial dimension. The impact of perceived discrimination on mental health is twofold - it directly affects an individual's psychological and physiological well-being while also being linked to other social factors that determine one's overall health status (CMAH, 2009). For instance, systemic barriers faced by immigrant populations, like lack of recognition for their foreign credentials, qualifications, and work experience can lead to disparities in employment opportunities as well as differences in working conditions and income levels. These factors collectively contribute to higher rates of mental health issues among those who perceive themselves as victims of discrimination based on race or ethnicity. It is crucial for society at large to address these underlying systemic issues related to racial discrimination in order to promote better mental health outcomes for all individuals regardless of their ethnic background or immigration status.

Engaging Intersectional and Transnational Approaches to Human Integration

The intersectional and transnational frameworks have a significant impact on gender identity issues and the integration of immigrant and refugee women in Canada. These approaches recognize that individuals experiences are shaped by multiple intersecting identities, such as gender, race, class, and migration status. They also acknowledge that these experiences are not confined to national borders but are influenced by global factors.

The Intersectional Framework

Human migration is a complex phenomenon that involves various factors and categories. Mountz and Mohan (2022) state that to fully comprehend the processes of migration, it is necessary to adopt an intersectional perspective that acknowledges the interconnectedness of different power dynamics relating to gender, race, ethnicity, class, and other identity markers. This approach provides a valuable framework for analyzing how these categories intersect with one another and shape individuals' experiences in diverse ways. By unveiling hidden power relations that permeate multiple aspects of society, intersectionality sheds light on the intricate nature of human interaction. In other words, the concept of intersectionality allows for an exploration of how different identities converge to generate disadvantages for certain individuals while bestowing privileges upon others. Furthermore, Mountz and Mohan (2022) assert that employing an intersectional approach can assist in unraveling and comprehending the social disparities, injustices, oppression, and difficulties encountered by migrants within the intricate framework of global human migration.

According to Carastathis et al. (2018), most studies on migration still fail to recognize the interconnectedness of experiences and the interconnected effects of gender, race, class, and sexuality-based power dynamics. To address this issue, Thimm and Chaudhari (2021) propose the notion of scaling intersectionality, which entails a transition in scale from global and national levels to the individual, familial, and household levels - often referred to as 'the global intimate'. This approach allows for a concentrated examination of social context, encompassing historical events, intellectual influences, and political dynamics that shape individuals' experiences within specific spatial settings. By adopting this perspective, researchers can delve into how external factors contribute to embodied encounters with various physical environments. Employing this conceptual framework within the Canadian context will enable a deeper examination of lenses through which varying migrant experiences are perceived and interpreted. This approach will shed light on how structural barriers can both facilitate and exploit tensions and productive outcomes, ultimately leading to a more nuanced comprehension of social dynamics, power structures, and their intricacies (Rodó de Zarate and Baylina, 2018).

Bletscher and Spiers (2023) state that gender identity issues and the integration of immigrant and refugee women in Canada are complex topics that require an intersectional lens to fully understand the experiences and challenges faced by these individuals. Intersectionality allows for an exploration of how gender identity intersects with other aspects of identity, such as race, class, and sexuality, to shape the experiences and opportunities of immigrant and refugee women in Canada. By considering the interconnected effects of multiple systems of power and oppression, an intersectional approach reveals the unique experiences and barriers faced by different groups of women within the immigrant and refugee population. For example, immigrant and refugee women who identify as transgender may face additional challenges in accessing healthcare, housing, employment, and social support compared to cisgender. Furthermore, intersectionality helps to highlight the ways in which gender identity intersects with other social categories to shape individual experiences. For instance, immigrant and refugee women who belong to racial or ethnic minority groups may face both gender-based discrimination and racism, resulting in compounded barriers to integration in Canadian society (Canadian Council for Refugees, 2006).

Transnational Approaches

Transnational approaches to migration have been employed by migration scholars to analyze how different social groupings, including gender, race, class, and sexuality intersect and shape migrant experiences. These approaches recognize that migration is not a one-dimensional phenomenon, but rather a complex process influenced by multiple factors. By adopting a transnational perspective, scholars have been able to uncover the interconnectedness of migration experiences across borders, as well as the ways in which social and structural inequalities impact the integration of immigrant and refugee women in Canada. Feminist and critical race scholars have also contributed to the integration of immigrant and refugee women in Canada by highlighting the power dynamics and social inequalities that shape their experiences. For instance, scholars have examined how gender norms and expectations impact the experiences of immigrant and refugee women, particularly in relation to family dynamics and household responsibilities (Canadian Council for Refugees, 2006).

Mountz and Mohan (2022) state that transnational approaches examine the contextual and political factors in multiple countries to situate migrations as occurring across various households and communities simultaneously. This provides a deeper understanding of the pervasive interconnections between migrant communities that span borders. These approaches offer valuable insights into the implications of ongoing connections between places of emigration and immigration, where migrants establish new ties and reshape landscapes. Consequently, this raises important questions about integration, membership, and citizenship. Moreover, the transnational perspective uncovers how migration journeys are shaped by networks that extend beyond national boundaries. These networks play a crucial role in sustaining migration processes and facilitating the flow of resources, information, and support.

Intersectionality and Transnationalism: Immigrant and Refugee Women in Canada

The combination of intersectionality and transnationalism creates a crucial conceptual framework for addressing diverse aspects of the migration experience. It allows us to critically explore limitations on managing or governing human migration through policies. By analyzing migration through an intersectional lens, researchers can understand how social and structural factors intersect with gender, race, class, and other axes of identity to shape the experiences of immigrant and refugee women in Canada. More specifically, it is important to recognize the gender dynamics and power relations that impact the integration of immigrant and refugee women in Canada. For example, traditional gender norms and expectations often place a disproportionate burden of household responsibilities on women, which can hinder their ability to fully participate in other aspects of society, such as education, employment, and civic engagement. Understanding and addressing these gender identity issues is essential for promoting the successful integration of immigrant and refugee women in Canada.

Symbolic Interactionism

Symbolic interactionism, specifically Cooley's looking-glass self (Cooley, 1902) and Goffman's theory of impression management (Goffman, 1959), serves as a theoretical framework for this study. According to Cooley (1902), our identities are formed through interpersonal interactions and how we perceive others' perceptions of us. From a looking-glass perspective, our gender identity is influenced by how we interpret the way others see our gender. It is important to note that there are criticisms of the looking-glass self-theory, such as individual flexibility and the idea that our identities are not solely based on external societal or interpersonal interactions (Tice, 1992). However, Cooley's theory provides a foundational understanding of how individuals experience the interactive nature of gender. In situations where our personal desires for ourselves do not align with societal expectations or what we observe through social interactions, it can lead to social stress (Tabler et al., 2021).

Recent efforts to measure the intricacy of gender have brought attention to a noticeable conflict between an individual's perception of their own gender and how others attribute and perceive/react to it (Wylie et al., 2010). Additionally, Goffman's theory of impression management (Goffman, 1959) underscores the fact that we are constantly striving, both subconsciously and consciously, to shape the impressions others form about us in our everyday interactions. It can be argued that we manage these impressions, at least partially, through our gender expression – encompassing our presentation of gender, self-perception, and behaviors. Different aspects of one's gender expression may differ depending on the context and may not necessarily align with an individual's professed gender identity (West & Zimmerman, 1987). For instance, female athletes participating in male-dominated sports like boxing encounter challenges when attempting to effectively navigate societal expectations regarding masculinity and femininity (Tabler et al., 2021).

Examining gender expression provides a deeper understanding of how gender influences interpersonal dynamics and personal well-being. By considering how others perceive our femininity or masculinity, we can assess both our subjective conformity to societal expectations and our ability to manage the impression we create through gender expression. Research suggests that individuals' self-perceived nonconformity to traditional gender roles can impact their overall health. For instance, a study by Hart et al. (2019) found that cisgender women who believe others view their gender expression as more masculine tend to have lower self-rated health. This focus on subjective appraisal of gender expression allows for a more comprehensive exploration of its effects on individuals' experiences and quality of life. It emphasizes the interconnectedness between societal norms, personal identity, and social interactions in shaping one's well-being. Understanding these dynamics is crucial for promoting inclusivity and supporting individuals in expressing their authentic selves without facing negative health consequences (Tabler et al., 2021).

In summary, examining the perception of one's own gender expression provides valuable insights into how it impacts individual experiences and overall wellness. Recognizing the significance of subjective appraisal allows us to better understand the complexity of human identity within social contexts while striving for equal opportunities regardless of conforming or nonconforming expressions of femininity or masculinity.

Integration Services for Immigrants and Refugees

Integration services for immigrants and refugees are crucial in supporting the successful integration of immigrant and refugee women in Canada. These services aim to address various challenges and barriers that these women may face, including gender identity issues. In Canada, the Equality Act guarantees that all Canadians are entitled to equal rights, fair treatment, and a discrimination-free environment regardless of their gender, sexual orientation, marital status, or family status. This demonstrates Canada's commitment to providing women in the country with equal opportunities in all aspects of life. Gender equality also plays a crucial role in preventing violence against women and girls.

Recently, Canada took another important step by establishing Global Affairs Canada with the aim of promoting women's equal participation with men and shaping sustainable development within the communities. The objective is to support women and girls in fully exercising their human rights while also addressing gender disparities related to access and control over resources for development. As a result of these efforts, there has been a significant increase in female representation within policy-making processes. This increased representation allows women to contribute their unique perspectives and ideas towards creating policies that not only safeguard them but also enable them to reach their full potential. By actively involving women in decision-making roles, Canada is ensuring that policies are designed with their needs in mind. Overall, these initiatives highlight how the Canadian government recognizes the importance of gender equality for fostering inclusive societies where everyone can thrive. By creating an environment where discrimination based on gender is eliminated and empowering women through active participation at every level of society, Canada continues its journey towards becoming a better country for all its citizens.

Canadian Immigrant Integration Program

The Canadian Immigrant Integration Program is a crucial component in addressing gender identity issues and supporting the successful integration of immigrant and refugee women into Canadian society. Through this program, various services and initiatives are provided to assist immigrant and refugee women in overcoming the challenges they face. These services include language and skills training programs, settlement support, employment assistance, and access to healthcare and social services.

The Canadian Immigrant Integration Program (CIIP) was introduced in 2007 as a trial initiative and later expanded into a comprehensive program in 2010. This groundbreaking project is a collaboration between the Government of Canada, the Association of Canadian Community Colleges (ACCC), and various partners throughout the country. The primary objective of CIIP is to offer free pre-departure orientation to individuals (including spouses and adult dependents) who are still residing abroad during the final stages of their immigration process. By providing valuable information, necessary resources, and online support through its network of partners, CIIP aims to assist immigrants in better preparing for economic success upon their arrival in Canada. This program plays a vital role in equipping newcomers with essential knowledge and skills needed for successful integration into Canadian society (Government of Canada, 2013). Additionally, the Canadian Immigrant Integration Program (CIIP) assists newcomers in securing employment that aligns with their skills, qualifications, and background. Since its inception in 2007, CIIP has attracted over 13,000 prospective immigrants who have registered for the program. Out of these participants, more than 9,000 have successfully completed the program (Government of Canada, 2013). CIIP graduates not only expressed gratitude for the valuable information and support received during their sessions but also demonstrated increased awareness and knowledge on several fronts - particularly regarding job search strategies and developing realistic expectations about employment prospects in Canada.

A social worker at the Canadian Mental Health Association, who is a graduate of CIIP from India, shares her experience with the program. According to her, CIIP played a crucial role in boosting her confidence and providing valuable information, advice, contacts, and referrals before she arrived in Canada. These resources helped her create a solid plan for successful integration into Canadian society. At every stage of the process, CIIP was there to support her, and she had no hesitation in following their guidance. This included dedicating time to understanding Canadian culture, having her credentials evaluated, attending job search workshops, and enhancing her professional skills within the context of Canada. Looking back on it now, she realizes that her integration journey began even before she set foot in Toronto because CIIP had equipped her with knowledge about Canadian culture as well as job opportunities. This early awareness allowed her to have a clearer sense of what steps she needed to take next (Government of Canada, 2013).

Overall, the CIIP is a unique program that brings together stakeholders from the public and private sector. The Government of Canada provides funding to ACCC to deliver the program while the private sector partners provide support in the form of onsite programming, resources, and business advocacy. Although there is no explicit acknowledgement of its role as a pilot program aiming to address the key challenges facing newcomers during their employment transition in Canada, the Canadian Immigrant Integration Program (CIIP) is a significant first step in that direction. CIIP is designed to help newcomers in the last stages of their immigration process to those who are still abroad during the final stages of the application process. One component of CIIP is an online learning tool called “Start Here” which provides an integrated introduction to Canada. The course is structured around five learning objectives which include: meeting new people and making connections, getting a job in Canada, finding a job in your field, changing careers, and working in Canada, making the most of your skills and experience, and making Canada a better place for families. The course is meant for individuals who have recently arrived in Canada or who are about to begin their journey to Canada. It is available in 11 languages and provides a wealth of information and resources. Another component of CIIP is a free, interactive online tool that helps newcomers integrate into Canadian society. The tool is called “Find Your Path” and provides a user-friendly online guide to navigating the employment landscape in Canada. It is available in 14 languages and is designed to be used by newcomers who have not been in Canada for very long. Information and tools are provided on topics such as job search, resumes and cover letters, job interviews, and job transitions. Perhaps the Canadian government should consider implementing a specialized program for gender-diverse refugees, similar to the establishment of CIIP for new immigrants. This tailored initiative could effectively address the various challenges highlighted in this study.

Journey of Identity: From LGBTQ+ Activist to Refugee

The journey of those fleeing persecution is a painful and often overlooked reality. This study sheds light on the experiences of individuals who have faced the unimaginable, forced to leave their homes and seek safety in foreign lands due to their sexual orientation or gender identity. The challenges they encounter on their quest for survival and the resilience that empowers them to persevere have been explored. Through their stories, the strength and determination of an often-invisible community is clearly visible, reminding researchers of the importance of global support and acceptance.

Melnyk and Parker (2021) recount the story of Boban Stojanovic, a prominent advocate for LGBTQ+ rights, who experienced a lack of safety in his home country of Serbia due to being a visible gay activist. In search of security and acceptance, he made the decision to relocate to Canada with his partner. Upon arrival, Boban discovered a vibrant and tightly knit LGBTQ+ community that offered him not only financial support but also provided him with housing accommodations. What struck him most was the genuine warmth and gratitude displayed by people he encountered everywhere in Canada. The stark contrast between his life in Serbia and his newfound experiences in Canada left Boban feeling as though he had entered an alternate reality. However, along with this fresh start came an overwhelming sense of self-doubt and numerous existential questions: Who am I now? How can I contribute to society? How will Canadians perceive me? These inquiries all centered around issues related to identity - a fundamental concern faced by refugees who have left behind their previous realities. Boban's new life brought forth challenges such as loss of privileges, limited rights, dependency on others for basic necessities, inability to make long-term plans, and constant uncertainty looming over him. Despite encountering these obstacles on his journey towards self-discovery in Canada, Boban remained hopeful that one day he would find answers to these pressing questions while continuing to navigate through the complexities of rebuilding an individual identity and contributing positively within Canadian society.

Boban’s story highlights that despite the many strides that have been taken to guarantee LGBTQ+ rights over the course of the last several decades, the experiences of queer refugees and asylum seekers remain marred by stigma. Disregarding the existence of queer asylum seekers, who number in the thousands, is disempowering and contributes to the marginalization of a vulnerable population within Canada. Although LGBTIQ people have been able to legally marry in most countries for the past several years, many continue to face discrimination and violence in their home countries. Many are forced to flee their countries due to discrimination, societal pressures, or even government persecution. Upon arrival in Canada, these LGBTIQ refugees and asylum seekers often find themselves struggling with a lack of access to necessary support. Some may be first-time international migrants, while others may have experienced further trauma as a result of their experiences in the home country or as a result of the journey to Canada. Regardless of the reason, these individuals face challenges during their resettlement, including difficulty finding employment and housing, without which they may be forced to return to their home countries.

Physical and Emotional Well-being of Individuals Struggling with their Gender Identity

Accessing necessary healthcare services can be a challenge for LGBTQ individuals. Discrimination in LGBTQ health can hinder these individuals from receiving the care they deserve due to stigma, bias, and systemic inequalities in healthcare settings. According to the U.S. Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, members of the LGBTQ community face notable health obstacles due to social stigma, discrimination, and violence. In a society where heterosexuality as the norm, LGBTQ individuals often experience feelings of shame and stigmatization. The biases against LGBTQ people from their families, religious communities, workplaces, and schools have an impact on their mental well-being and personal safety. Compared to other students, LGBTQ youth are more susceptible to bullying in educational settings. This has serious consequences for their health since peer victimization is one of the main factors contributing to high-risk sexual behaviors among middle and high school students. Furthermore, revealing one's gender identity or sexual orientation can lead to significant interpersonal challenges within the home when parents or guardians fail to accept or support their child. As a result of family rejection, LGBTQ youth are overrepresented in foster care systems and are at higher risk of experiencing homelessness compared to other individuals within their age group. Moreover, LGBTQ youth are two to three times more likely than their heterosexual peers to attempt suicide (St. Catherine University, 2021).

The marginalization of LGBTQ individuals has been linked to increased rates of mental health disorders, substance abuse, and suicide. The LGBTQ community experiences the highest levels of drug use, including tobacco and alcohol consumption. Senior members of the LGBTQ population encounter additional challenges when it comes to healthcare due to isolation and a lack of providers who are culturally competent. Instances of discrimination that detrimentally impact the well-being of LGBTQ individuals include legal barriers in accessing health insurance, employment opportunities, housing options, adoption rights, and retirement benefits. Financial barriers also pose a significant challenge for this community. Furthermore, there is a scarcity of inclusive social programs for LGBTQ people across all age groups as well as a shortage of healthcare professionals who possess knowledge about and cultural competence in addressing specific health concerns within the LGBTQ community; this shortage can discourage these individuals from seeking necessary care. Additionally, negative attitudes displayed by healthcare providers further contribute to these barriers. Moreover, when combined with systemic racism and xenophobia in society at large or within the healthcare system specifically, stigmatization against transgender or sexually diverse individuals exacerbates existing difficulties in accessing proper medical care. This issue is particularly pronounced among immigrant populations or those with limited proficiency in English language skills; they face heightened vulnerability within the healthcare system due to fear and distrust stemming from past experiences or cultural differences (St. Catherine University, 2021).

According to research by Tabler et al. (2021), discrimination based on sexual identity is often a result of gender-related discrimination. This is because non-binary sexual orientations directly challenge the prevailing belief in binary genders and gender conformity. A study by St. Catherine University (2021) discovered that harassment stemming from nonconformity to traditional gender roles mediates the relationship between identifying as a sexual minority and experiencing depression. Gender presentation is frequently used as a visible means of categorizing individuals, and given the prevalence of categorical thinking, being "framed by gender" significantly influences how social interactions are approached and their outcomes (St. Catherine University, 2021). Therefore, it is crucial to consider how expressing one's gender may impact mental health outcomes.

Challenging Assumptions and Fostering Inclusivity in Transgender Research

MacKinnon, a 37-year-old transgender man and an assistant professor of social work at York University, found it offensive to discuss individuals who transitioned, later regretted their decision, and detransitioned. He believed that they were a small minority and giving them attention would perpetuate the misconception that transgender people are incapable of making informed choices regarding their treatment. MacKinnon's expertise in sexual and gender minority health led him to assume that most individuals detransitioned due to lack of family support or the discrimination they faced, rather than personal regret. In order to better understand this group for a new research study, he began conducting interviews. Over the past year, MacKinnon and his team have interviewed 40 detransitioners from the United States, Canada, and Europe. Many of these individuals had undergone gender-affirming medical treatments during their early twenties or even earlier. Their stories have challenged MacKinnon's previous assumptions. Though these interviews with detransitioners across different countries, MacKinnon has gained valuable insights into their experiences and motivations for reversing their transition process. The narratives shared by these individuals have forced him to reconsider his preconceived notions about why people choose to detransition (Respaut et al., 2022).

Numerous individuals have reported that their gender identity remained flexible even after starting treatment, and a third of them expressed remorse over their choice to transition from the gender assigned to them at birth. Some admitted that they refrained from informing their doctors about detransitioning due to feelings of embarrassment or shame. Others claimed that their doctors lacked the necessary knowledge and resources to assist them in the process. The common theme among these individuals was that transitioning did not effectively address their mental health issues. In his relentless pursuit of detransitioners, MacKinnon dedicated countless hours scrolling through TikTok and scouring online forums where people shared their experiences and sought solace in one another. These explorations exposed him to the online harassment detransitioners face, which extends beyond the usual anti-transgender attacks. Shockingly, members of the transgender community themselves silenced detransitioners with statements like "shut up" and even went as far as sending death threats. MacKinnon expressed his astonishment at this phenomenon by stating, I can't think of any other examples where you're not allowed to speak about your own healthcare experiences if you didn't have a positive outcome (Respaut et al., 2022).

As an academic dedicated to promoting inclusivity and well-being among sexual and gender minorities, MacKinnon remains committed to advancing knowledge in this field through compassionate inquiry into diverse perspectives within transgender communities worldwide. By engaging with this often-overlooked group within the transgender community, MacKinnon hopes to shed light on an underrepresented aspect of trans experiences while challenging societal stereotypes surrounding gender transitions. His research aims not only to broaden our understanding but also to provide support for those who may be struggling with similar decisions or facing negative perceptions from society.

Reduced Access to Adequate Healthcare Servicesnbsp;

Numerous worldwide studies indicate that rates of mental health issues are higher among refugee groups, recent immigrant groups, and racialized and ethno-cultural groups. For instance, a report suggests that migrant groups face more than double the risk of schizophrenia compared to non-migrant groups (CAMH, 2009). Additionally, refugees experience significantly elevated levels of psychological distress, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and depression. Various factors contribute to the increased risk of mental health problems in these populations. Common factors include unemployment, financial insecurity, poverty, and inadequate housing conditions. However, some individuals may also be affected by pre-migration stress caused by war or traumatic experiences such as torture or rape. The stress associated with migration itself can also impact certain individuals within these communities.

Refugees and individuals seeking asylum often originate from nations plagued by conflict and disrupted healthcare systems, rendering them vulnerable to various health-related hazards. Even upon arriving in countries of initial refuge or when situated as urban refugees or detainees within camps, their access to healthcare services and nutritional programs is often constrained or limited. Many challenges persist when they relocate to countries like Canada where accessing adequate healthcare services, particularly mental health provisions, remains a significant obstacle (CAMH, 2009). Hurdles impeding such access encompass insufficient awareness regarding available services, language disparities, financial obstacles, social stigmatization, and isolation factors along with cultural customs and beliefs (CAMH, 2009).

The legal status of refugees plays a crucial role in determining their ability to access healthcare and is intertwined with various social and cultural obstacles that impact their overall well-being. These limitations directly contribute to the deterioration of their health conditions. In Canada, this issue is particularly prominent, as refugees face significant difficulties in establishing meaningful connections within their new communities, which subsequently leads to social isolation detrimental to their physical and mental health (Kimani-Dupuis et al., 2021). Furthermore, addressing the impact of trauma on refugees' physical and mental well-being regarding family separation entails incorporating innovative coping mechanisms and conflict resolution strategies that extend beyond traditional psychological therapy. The shortage of mental health support, especially in cases where past traumas remain unaddressed, is a significant concern for refugees in Canada, particularly LGBTQ2S+ individuals who encounter distinct obstacles when seeking assistance and services to address violence or abuse. It is crucial to emphasize that refugee women, girls, and non-gender conforming individuals necessitate access to culturally sensitive gender-specific interventions for sexual and reproductive health within the cultural context (Kimani-Dupuis et al., 2021).

Diversity in the LGBTQ Community

The LGBTQ community embraces diversity. It includes individuals of various races, ethnicities, social classes, and religions. For the healthcare system to effectively serve everyone, it is crucial for practitioners, clinicians, and researchers to acknowledge and recognize the diverse individuals and communities that make up this population. The use of labels and language holds significance in this context. To be inclusive towards all individuals, healthcare professionals and researchers must continuously educate themselves on evolving understandings of sex, gender, and sexuality. This means acknowledging individuals whose gender identities, gender expressions, or sexual orientations are not explicitly represented within the LGBTQ acronym. For instance, this includes nonbinary people who identify as neither exclusively male nor female; asexual and demisexual people who do not experience sexual attraction or only feel it after forming an emotional bond; as well as intersex people who possess both male and female biological characteristics such as chromosomes, hormones, or reproductive organs (St. Catherine University, 2021).

The Role of Gender in Canadian Refugee Law

??????????? Arbel et al. (2014) explore the current state of gender and refugee law in Canada. They discuss the need to reshape the research and advocacy agendas surrounding this topic and highlight the hypotheses that gender has been sidelined from the refugee reform agenda, and that lower-level decision-making on gender-based refugee claims may not be as progressive as the high-level jurisprudence suggests. They also highlight the need for more comprehensive and transformative approaches in addressing gender issues within the refugee law context. Moreover, they emphasize the need for a sustained conversation between gender and sexuality scholarship, and incorporation of gender considerations into the wider discourse on border securitization.

??????????? The significance of gender in refugee law lies in its influence on the development of legal and social transformations regarding refugee rights and protections. Gender analysis provides a crucial perspective for understanding different forms of persecution, discrimination, and violence that refugees face. It affects the claims process as women, men, and individuals of different sexual orientations and gender identities experience persecution in different ways. Arbel et al. (2014) state that in recent years, the integration of gender into refugee law has led to the recognition of gender-related persecution, which includes experiences related to sexual orientation and gender identity. This has greatly influenced policymaking and decision-making, leading to more nuanced and comprehensive protections. However, Arbel et al. (2014) note that despite these developments, gender is no longer at the forefront of the refugee law reform agenda, signaling a need for renewed focus and advocacy.

??????????? Arbel et al. (2014) also explore how anti-refugee stances in certain Western states increase the vulnerabilities of refugees making gendered claims. The authors argue for a comprehensive and nuanced interpretation of gender in refugee law that includes different experiences based on sexual orientation and gender identity, suggesting that these factors significantly influence the claims process and outcomes. However, it's pertinent to note that the focus isn't solely on the subject of chosen gender identity, but rather an overall evaluation of gender-related persecution and claims within refugee law.

Interpretation

Challenges in Accessing Language Interpretation Services

Language and culture are significant factors in the delivery of mental health services (CAMH, 2009). For instance, when a refugee or immigrant seeks help from a provider who is unfamiliar with their language and culture, it poses challenges. Firstly, the individual may struggle to articulate their issues to the service provider. Secondly, even if the provider comprehends them, they may not be able to offer culturally sensitive treatment tailored to the immigrant's needs. Moreover, when individuals encounter mental health challenges, it is essential that they express their experiences using the language they feel most comfortable with. This can contribute to improved outcomes and a better understanding of their conditions.

Canada is experiencing increasing diversity every year due to immigration being the primary factor driving population growth. With over 200 languages spoken in Canada, 20% of Canadians have a mother tongue that is not an official language (CAMH, 2009). Apart from the official languages, Mandarin, Cantonese, and South Asian languages like Urdu, Hindi, and Punjabi are the most frequently spoken mother tongues. It is worth noting that less than 50% of individuals who speak these languages use English or French at their homes (CAMH, 2009). While interpreter services are required in the court system, this is not often the situation in the healthcare system. Consequently, children or non-medical personnel may end up acting as interpreters. Even if there are translation and interpretation services accessible, clinicians usually lack training on how to utilize them effectively. Additionally, even if language services were readily available, there are concerns regarding the quality of treatment delivered through an interpreter. Moreover, some individuals argue that providing care in the same language as the patient is attending is the only means of offering fair and equal care (CAMH, 2009). Addressing this requirement presents a unique challenge, as linguistic proficiency has been identified as one of the key measures needed to enhance mental health services for immigrant, refugee, ethno-cultural, and racialized groups (IRER) in Canada.

Difficulties in Securing Safe and Inclusive Housing Accommodation

In Canada, the challenges of housing and food security are closely connected for refugees, particularly those who come to Canada as government-assisted refugees, refugee claimants, and asylum seekers. Homelessness and insufficient access to nutritious food are driven by a lack of available housing options, unaffordable housing prices, and precarious employment opportunities in Canada. According to a report from Canadian Council for Refugees (2006), there were 1,991 refugees across the country accessing emergency homeless shelters in 2016. This marked a significant increase from 2014 when approximately 1,096 refugees sought refuge in these shelters. Notably, family units made up most of the individuals seeking shelter rather than individual refugees themselves. Furthermore, families experiencing forced displacement stayed almost twice as long compared to individual displaced persons.

The nexus of homelessness and inadequate access to nourishing sustenance is an outcome of a multifaceted equation involving a scarcity of available housing options, soaring housing prices that remain beyond reach, and the precarious nature of employment opportunities that greets newcomers on Canadian soil. Delving into the granular details, the challenge of homelessness looms over refugees as they confront an overwhelming scarcity of viable housing options. A dire dearth of affordable dwellings exacerbates the predicament, often forcing refugee families and individuals into substandard living arrangements that further perpetuate a cycle of instability. Unaffordable housing prices cast a long shadow over the dreams of newcomers, shattering their aspirations of a safe haven where they can rebuild their lives. The Canadian housing market's inflationary trajectory renders the prospect of owning or renting a suitable abode an elusive dream, often pushing refugees to the fringes of the housing market, where inadequate living conditions become an unfortunate norm. These exorbitant prices stand as formidable barriers, preventing families and individuals from breaking free from the vicious cycle of homelessness.

Limitations

Over the past two decades, extensive research has been conducted on the mental health of IRER groups. However, in comparison to other countries, Canada still has room for improvement in this area. While the research conducted specifically on IRER groups in Canada is of high quality, it only covers certain groups and regions. For instance, cities like Montreal, Toronto, and Vancouver have seen a significant amount of research conducted and published on this topic. On the other hand, there are entire provinces and territories within Canada that have no research available at all. Furthermore, much of the existing research on IRER groups focuses primarily on adults. Although there is a growing body of literature about seniors and their mental health issues, there is an urgent need for more studies regarding children and youth. It is crucial to understand rates of mental health problems among these younger demographics as well as develop appropriate service responses. In addition to age-specific research gaps within IRER populations, little attention has been given to inter-sectoral issues such as low-income individuals or those who identify with the LGBTQ2S+ communities within these groups.

CAMH (2009) states that there is a lack of Canadian studies examining policy or service level initiatives that could enhance access to mental healthcare or improve outcomes for IRER individuals. Furthermore, various immigrant groups are frequently combined into a single population or classified based on broad geographic regions such as Asia, Africa, or Europe. This general approach to categorization may not capture the nuanced distinctions necessary for providing equitable services at a local level. For example, individuals from different parts of Africa may have distinct cultural, religious, historical backgrounds and language variations that result in diverse service needs.

The existing literature on gender identity and integration of immigrant and refugee women in Canada reveals several key factors that impact their economic integration. Moreover, the literature highlights the intersectionality of gender and refugee/immigration status in shaping the experiences of immigrant and refugee women in Canada. However, it seems that little distinction is made between the respective experiences of different immigration categories of women in the current literature. Researchers and academic scholars need to ask how economic integration is connected to a person's refugee/immigration status in Canada, and whether refugee women and sponsored women face additional barriers in achieving economic integration compared to other immigrant women. In other words, the literature on the economic integration of immigrant and refugee women in Canada emphasizes the need for a deeper examination of the experiences of different immigration categories.

Issues Faced by Afghan Immigrant and Refugee Women

According to the Canadian government, there are currently over 40,000 refugees from 26 countries residing in Canada, who are seeking asylum from persecution or conflict. This includes approximately 15,000 from the Middle East, 3,000 from Africa, and 9,000 from South and Central Asia, making the majority of refugees from Afghanistan and the surrounding region. The majority of these refugees are living in shelters and temporary accommodation provided by the government. In the context of gender identity issues and the integration of immigrant and refugee women in Canada, it is important to acknowledge that Afghan women face unique challenges due to their gender, cultural background, and immigration status. Research has shown that immigrant and refugee Afghan women often encounter barriers in various aspects of their integration process, including education, employment, and access to healthcare services (Stempel and Alemi, 2021). These challenges can be further exacerbated by the intersectionality of their gender and cultural identities, making it crucial to consider their specific experiences.

Afghan women who have sought refuge in Canada face numerous significant challenges when it comes to resettlement. Being a religious minority and as Muslims, they are subjected to racial attacks due to international terrorism. As refugees, they struggle with the aftermath of past traumas while trying to adapt to a new country with unfamiliar customs. Additionally, as women, they are confronted with the task of finding their own voice within ethnic traditions that restrict their freedom of expression in a Canadian society that still has work towards achieving gender equality. Stempel and Alemi (2021) believe that the primary reason for the lower incomes of Afghans in Canada is the lower levels of employment income, particularly among less educated Afghan women and highly educated Afghan men and women. Research indicates that these trends are influenced by a greater divergence between gender norms in Afghanistan and Canada, as well as higher rates of physical and mental disabilities resulting from exposure to traumatic experiences (Stempel & Alemi, 2021). Additionally, the limited social connections within this small group of refugees from a low-income country contribute to their economic challenges.

Stempel and Alemi (2021) also state that the economic integration of Afghan refugees in Canada can provide valuable insights into their experiences. These refugees come from a poverty-stricken country that has been plagued by political violence for more than four decades. Due to their small numbers and limited resources, they face challenges in establishing support networks, occupational niches, and pathways to professional opportunities. As a result, they may be less reliant on internal social connections and have to adopt alternative strategies for economic success (Stempel & Alemi, 2021). Moreover, the majority of Afghan individuals seeking refuge are followers of the Islamic faith. They come from a nation that has been closely linked by the media to fundamentalist Islam and acts of terrorism, resulting in them facing significant discrimination (Pew Research Center, 2017). Additionally, Afghan immigrants who arrive in Canada must adapt to a society with a distinct gender hierarchy compared to their home country. This is evident through the lower rates of female employment within the Afghan community in Canada.

Numerous Afghan women find themselves in situations where their husbands are either living in Afghanistan or other countries, resulting in separation. Regardless of the cause for this separation, if the government helps these couples reunite, it could significantly reduce mental health issues among women and particularly among children. According to a study conducted by Bevelander and Pendakur (2014), it was found that Afghans in Sweden had higher incomes and employment rates compared to those in Canada, especially among refugees with graduate degrees. The main factor contributing to this difference is the integration process for refugees in Sweden, which includes 1.5 years of training in a newcomer program. This program provides immigrants with equivalencies for their education obtained outside of Sweden. Implementing a similar equivalency assessment system along with additional training opportunities in Canada would greatly enhance the employment rates and income levels of Afghan refugees (Bevelander and Pendakur, 2014).

Conclusion

The majority of policymaking related to immigration and refugee protection, healthcare provision, social security, and the labor market often overlooks gender considerations. The significance of gender is disregarded in both the migration experiences as well as the policy and institutional responses towards resettling refugees. According to Kimani-Dupuis et al. (2021), there is a necessity for policies and practices that are attuned to addressing the unique challenges faced by individuals seeking refuge in Canada. To create a more inclusive and equitable healthcare system, it is crucial to educate caregivers and the public about the challenges faced by the LGBTQ community. This will ensure that people of all sexes, sexual orientations, gender identities, and gender expressions are able to access proper medical care. Additionally, embracing diversity within the healthcare ecosystem will dismantle barriers and discrepancies that often result from uninformed attitudes, thus fostering a more compassionate and empathetic approach to healthcare delivery.

There are many refugee resettlement programs in Canada to help newcomers adapt to their new home by providing them with support during their transition into the Canadian way of life. A diverse array of services are offered at the local and provincial level, including language training, job training and placement programs, financial assistance, social and cultural orientation classes, and health promotion initiatives. While refugees are eligible for these services as soon as they are recognized as refugees, in many cases they must wait years before they are able to access these supports and resources. This disjunction between eligibility and accessibility underscores the need for expedited mechanisms that ensure timely access to crucial services, ultimately mitigating the vulnerabilities that accompany prolonged uncertainty.

Further emphasizing the complexity of the challenges refugees grapple within Canada, the intricately intertwined challenges of housing and food security for refugees in Canada paint a sobering picture of the barriers these individuals and families confront as they seek to rebuild their lives on unfamiliar shores. The amalgamation of inadequate housing options, unaffordable prices, and tenuous employment prospects poses a formidable barrier to their integration and well-being. Addressing these challenges necessitates comprehensive policy interventions that encompass affordable housing initiatives, targeted employment support, and holistic approaches that recognize and prioritize the unique needs of refugees within the broader fabric of Canadian society. Only through a concerted and compassionate effort can Canada truly fulfill its role as a sanctuary for those in need of refuge, offering them the opportunity to forge new lives characterized by stability, dignity, and security.

This study also sheds light on an emerging issue - personal, psychological, and cultural insecurities amplified by the current political climate and compounded by the religious background of Afghan women. These insecurities create complex "intersections" between Afghan refugee women and Canadian society which prove more challenging than what is typically portrayed in popular discourse or political rhetoric about Canada being an easygoing "lucky country". The study goes beyond the surface, highlighting the nuanced reality that defies simplistic narratives, urging a more nuanced understanding of the complex dynamics at play.

In conclusion, the multifaceted challenges that refugees encounter in their pursuit of security, belonging, and dignity are deeply ingrained in various facets of Canadian society, from healthcare to employment and beyond. Addressing these issues demands a holistic and compassionate approach, one that is cognizant of gender dynamics, responsive to the diverse needs of refugees, and attuned to the intricate nuances that shape their resettlement experiences. By fostering such an approach, Canada can truly honor its role as a haven for those seeking refuge offering them the prospect of forging new lives defined by stability, respect, and a sense of belonging.

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