From Uncertainty to Respectability

INTRODUCTION

Japan’s problematic history, in my opinion, leads one to question how the country ever became an advanced and powerful nation. Dating as far back as the 1800s, Japan had sights on expanding its empire (See Figure 1). As you can see from the map, much of the territory of eastern Asia, except Russia, was ruled by Japan between 1895-1939. They had conflicts with China, as well as with Russia, but were allies with the United States during WW I, and Nazi Germany and Italy during WW II. They fought alongside the country that gave them the best strategic advantage.?

Figure 1

To be an elitist society meant that education was reserved for the ruling monarchs and their families, and possibly a few loyal subjects, but an educated populace was believed to be a threat to the status quo. There were few uprisings, quickly quelled when they occurred, and perpetrators mercilessly punished to set an example. It was difficult to live in Japan, unless you were privileged, and even then life seemed to be unpredictable.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Western influence seeped into the minds of Japanese society and challenged traditional thought. Since the end of WWI they enjoyed the benefits of trading with allied nations as long as it did not conflict with their nationalistic ideology. By the time WWII erupted, Japan was convinced that siding with Nazi Germany was to their advantage, but later realized Hitler could not be trusted when he double-crossed Mussolini.

Despite mistrust for Hitler, Japan continued to have high hopes of expanding and modernizing its economy, but lacked the natural resources to make it happen. The invasion of French Indochina angered the United States, and in response, they froze all Japanese assets, preventing them from buying oil. Japan decided to seize the oil they needed by attacking the US Naval fleet at Pearl Harbor, which turned out to be a huge miscalculation for them. While initially surprised, the United States regrouped and fought back. The final decisive blow from the United States was the bombing of the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki that brought Japan to its knees. Following the war, the Japanese people were more open to Western thought, which the United States was happy to oblige.?

Western thought influenced traditional Japanese thinking by paving the way towards mandatory compulsory education. Public schools and universities were expanding, giving citizens more opportunities for better paying jobs. Japan was on its way to full democratization. Today, they have a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary government.

EDUCATIONAL EXPENDITURE

The Japanese government spends a considerable amount of money on education (see Figure 2). In 2020, they allocated 5,306 billion yen. In dollars, this is equivalent to $35,830,770,668.00? (simple conversion calculator). In comparison, the New York State Division of the Budget for fiscal year 2023, appropriated $40.60 billion for the State Education Department. New York State alone spends slightly more than Japan does as a nation. For a small county, Japan spends a considerable percentage of their gross national product (GNP) on education as summarized below:

?Budget allocation: 5,306 billion yen (8.6% of National Budget)

• National treasury’s share of compulsory education (28.7%)
• Tuition support for high schools (8.5%)
• Management expenses grants for national university corporation (20.4%)
• Grants for private school (7.7%)
• Science and technology promotion (18.4%)
• Lifelong Learning (2.7%)
• Miscellaneous expenses: sports, student exchange, textbooks, National Institute of Technology, facilities, scholarship, and culture

Compulsory education, university grants, and science and technology amount to 67.5 percent of the budget clearly indicating their priorities.

Figure 2: General Budget Expenditure FY2020

SUMMARY OF JAPAN’s PISA RESULTS

Japanese students performed exceptionally well on PISA in 2022, despite coming off the COVID pandemic. One explanation OECD provided for their stellar performance was the nation’s high resiliency factor compared to other nations at slightly higher than 88 percent. In other words, Japan was institutionally ready for the pandemic with the infrastructure necessary for students to perform well. Only Canada had a higher resiliency factor at slightly under 90 percent and they also performed very well. The United States performed less well than these countries with a resiliency factor at approximately 85 percent. In terms of student outcomes, resiliency is an important factor in student achievement.?

As a nation, Japan scored second highest in the world on the PISA test in science, mathematics and reading (See Figure 3). Trend data from the OECD report actually has the nation performing slightly better than they have in the past. Again, this had a lot to do with how well they addressed the pandemic.?

In general, the nations that performed better on PISA in 2022 had fewer school closures. How did this happen? The people followed the government’s COVID restrictions regarding travel and masks, and avoided large group gatherings, but cultural differences also contributed to the country’s closure rate. For instance, Japanese people typically bow versus shake hands, nor hug, or kiss, when greeting people. Additionally, Japan is recognized for its high levels of inclusion and fairness, and gender gap differences are low, resulting in boys and girls performing equally well.?

Figure 3

THE INFLUENCE OF WESTERN THOUGHT

Following World War I, Western thought influenced universal freedoms and educational reform. Japan’s relationship with democratic countries only strengthened that movement. Economic growth following the war created new demands on educational systems across the globe.

As early as 1871, five Japanese girls, including Tsuda Umeko, a pioneer in Women’s education who founded Tsuda University, traveled to the United States. Her father had traveled there and wanted his daughter to benefit from the same experiences he did. His political influence helped pave the way for this to happen at a time when Japan was extremely curious about the American educational system. While in the United States, she studied at Yale University and Bryn Mawr College.

These early visits were influential in promoting Western thought. In 1873, Dr. David Murray, a Rutgers University Professor, became Superintendent of Education in Japan, and served as senior officer to the Ministry of Education for over five years, when the first public school system was launched. As Superintendent, he created a universal system of? education where all social classes of people could get a proper education. He is largely credited with the educational framework Japan has in place today. The University of Tokyo was realized under Dr. Murray’s leadership.?

Occurring at approximately the same time that Professor Murray was working with the Japanese Ministry of Education, American teachers were recruited to teach in Japan, as well as Japanese teachers visiting the United States, to become familiar with the American educational system. One teacher who visited Japan was Marion M. Scott, an English teacher. She acted as a consultant and research fellow to explore the actual conditions of Japanese elementary schools. Many American textbooks were translated into English and used in these schools.

As compulsory education grew in the late 19th century and became law of the land, the need for qualified teachers became increasingly in demand. It was understood that teachers should be trained and certified by completing a rigorous induction program as they do in many other professions. To satisfy this demand,? in 1907 the Department of Education established Normal Schools. Normal schools were conceived for teacher preparation by specifying the standards, training, admissions requirements, and textbooks used to train teachers. The number of Normal Schools almost doubled from 1896 to 1913 (see Figure 4). The Panzer School of Physical Education, now part of? Montclair State University, was a Normal School designed for the purpose of preparing physical education teachers.?

Figure 4: Establishment of the Normal School

THE ORGANIZATION OF THE SCHOOL SYSTEM

The Fundamental Law of Education in Japan’s ensures that all children regardless of race, creed, sex, social status, economic position, or disability, be provided a free and appropriate public education for the purpose of preparing students for a wide range of academic and cultural experiences, including morality and self-care (MEXT-Ministry of Education). The school system also embraces the overarching themes of lifelong learning, equal opportunity, compulsory education, teacher obligations, and social education. Japan can boast of a thorough, highly structured, rigorous, and demanding school system.

Japan initially differed from other developing nations in terms of its thinking about education being the driving force behind economic growth and prosperity. It was only after the influence of Western thought did the country universally begin to think this way. They came to realize the benefits of an educated society and put systems in place to ensure its citizens were well prepared for the Industrial Revolution. There is little doubt that Western thought influenced the growth of compulsory and higher education.?

The schematic in Figure 5 illustrates the vertical structure of Japan’s school system. This is referred to by them as the 6-3-3-4 system. There are four tiers: Pre-Primary, Primary, Secondary Education, and Higher Education. Pre-Primary is Early Childhood and Kindergarten, Primary is Elementary, Secondary is Lower and Upper Secondary combined, and Higher Education is Junior Colleges, Undergraduate, and Graduate Colleges and Universities. For all practical purposes, their school structure is similar to the United States, including the breakdown of years students typically spend in each level.?

FIGURE 5

To advance the goal of educating all of its citizens, Japan included the Fundamental Law of Education to the Constitution that reads as follows: “All people shall have the right to receive an equal education corresponding to their ability as provided by law. The people shall be obligated to have all boys and girls under their protection receive ordinary education as provided for by law. Such compulsory education shall be free” (The Constitution of Japan, Article 26). It further established national principles of co-education, social education, prohibition of partisan political education, prohibition of religious education, and prohibition of improper control of education.?

In 2019, Japan established vocational universities and junior colleges as new kinds of post-secondary schools to increase specialization through practical and high-quality vocational education, and give more people the opportunity to thrive and be contributing members of society. Upgrades to special schools for the disabled did not lag far behind their regular counterparts. At first, there were separate schools to address the various types of disabilities. Using their terminology, there were schools for the blind, for the deaf, for the intellectually disabled, the physically disabled, and the health impaired. These schools were subsequently put under one umbrella called “Schools for Special Needs Education.” Regular schools were now able to accept students of all disabilities they could successfully educate across the system. Japan was well on its way to a modern educational system.

CURRICULUM

The Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT) is responsible for outlining the courses of study as broad standards, from kindergarten through upper secondary schools, to ensure uniformity throughout the country. Schools on the other hand are responsible for developing rigorous curricula in compliance with those standards. The goal is to teach students the basic and fundamental skills to think and act critically through communication, both written and verbal. Teachers are granted the flexibility to create their own lessons and activities to meet the needs of their students.

In Japan, moral education is of elevated importance, intentionally taught, and embedded throughout the curriculum. In fact, a special subject called the “Morality Period” is set aside for this purpose. Each school is required to stress morality, not just during the “Morality Period”, but integrated throughout, with the goal of teaching respect and human dignity in all its forms and in all aspects of life.

For students with disabilities, schools are required to develop instructional content, and utilize instructional methods that are appropriate for students in the mainstream and in special classes, according to their individualized support plans. The curriculum must adhere to the Elementary and Secondary Department of Special Needs Schools, and teachers are expected to follow all laws, policies, and regulations to ensure compliance.??

Since 2007, Japan has used high stakes testing to determine program eligibility. They administer the National Assessment of Academic Ability in mathematics to sixth graders and third year students at the lower secondary school. Students are also required to take the National Center Test for University Admissions. High stakes testing has been hotly debated as a poor measure of student achievement and unfairly used in determining entrance to better schools, colleges, and universities. Due to cultural pressures, poor performance on high stakes tests can lead to low self-esteem, unnecessary stress, and mental health issues among school-age children, teens, and young adults. Hidaka, Y., Operario, D., Takenaka, M., Omori, S., Ichikawa, S., and Shirasaka (2007), found that 6 percent of males and 11 percent of females reported a prior suicide attempt for a variety of different reasons. It is difficult to ignore the potential effects of high stakes testing for purposes of social mobility. Every one of us can relate to a parent’s anguish and despair over the loss of a child.?

The curriculum has not changed appreciably since WWII. Students take both traditional and non-traditional courses. At the elementary level, students take mathematics, Japanese language, science, physical education, as well as music, homemaking, and drawing (see Figure 6). Class periods fluctuate by grade level and subject, but the average class time is 35-40 minutes per class aligned with children’s developmental stages and maturity levels. Although not indicated in the chart, children also learn hieroglyphics. While unofficial, it is estimated that close to 2,000 hieroglyphs are used in their language. There is some speculation that the use of hieroglyphs aid the Japanese in understanding and remembering text, similar to the rebus methods? of using symbols to teach reading. I could not find any evidence of this and many experts state it is not true.? as an advantage to Japanese students, and a causal relation to academic performance. If this were the case it would be a causal link to performance.

Figure 6

At the lower secondary level, students are expected to take mathematics, science, social studies, Japanese language, health and physical education, art,? homemaking, vocational studies, drawing and handcrafts (see Figure 7). Foreign language is optional, but I would speculate English, Chinese, and possibly Russian are popular languages to learn. Classes range in time from 35-minutes to nearly one hour in length depending on the subject, and not all subjects meet daily, similar to schools in the United States and elsewhere..

Figure 7

PARADOX BETWEEN DECLINING ENROLLMENT, SCHOOL TYPES, WITH INCREASE IN TEACHER NEED

It is interesting to note that as compulsory education became the law of the land, the number of schools at certain levels decreased, except for kindergarten, specialized training schools, early childhood education, and universities (see Figure 8). One would have expected the opposite to occur. This decrease is proportional to the decline in student enrollment by school type (see Figure 9).

Figure 8: Number of Schools in Japan by Type from 1950 through 2020

Figure 9: Number of Students by School Type 1950-2020

While the number of school types and student enrollment decreased, the number of teachers across all levels increased (See Figure 10). It is difficult to determine exactly why this occurred other than to speculate the cause being to lower class size and fill vacancies in new schools requiring specialized certifications. The fact that these vacancies were filled is evidence the teaching profession was becoming more attractive as a career option. But this still does not explain what happened with enrollment in schools.?

What I suspect to be the cause for the spike in enrollment dates back to the initial educational order in 1879, which had a ripple effect on education for many years to come. The government at the time permitted local decision-making much like we have in the United States. They wanted local leaders to be able to respond to community needs and pressures. The application of this policy led to inequities and the eventual deterioration of the elementary school system at the time. Parents were upset and in protest kept their children home, attendance in certain zones decreased drastically, schools shut down, and money dried up for needed construction. Schools that survived did so at the expense of local control elsewhere. Evidence of this can be found in Figure 8 above, where the majority of decreases were at the elementary and lower secondary levels. Either there was a lack of aid to school districts or prefectures, or certain communities could not keep up with funding their local schools, or corruption.

Figure 10: Teacher Count by School Type (1950-2020)

TEACHER TRAINING

During the late 19th century, the government understood the need for teachers to be trained and certified, especially with the need for more teachers in classrooms. Initially there were two types of certifications, later expanded to include more options.?

Following graduation from the Upper Secondary School, students typically apply to colleges and universities and begin their post secondary education. They enter into any number of career options that match their interests and abilities. Teaching is one of those options.

Because of its importance to society, the government is responsible for screening and? preparing candidates for teacher certification. Teacher training includes subject-based knowledge, practical teaching skills, and other competencies for candidates to master before taking over a classroom. Local boards of education are responsible for recruiting, interviewing, and recommending teachers once they are fully certified following demonstration lessons in most cases.?

Students must pass a test before officially proceeding on to their career paths. Once certified and hired to teach, local boards of education ensure they are regularly evaluated. Periodically, teachers are provided additional training, especially those who need it, and salaries are based on experience and competence. Teachers earn conditional tenure on day 1? for 12 months and are not required to go through any extended probationary period (Ahn, R., Ananuma, S., & Mori, H.). They have legal job protection.? Local boards of education are charged with preventing inadequacy and incompetence from entering the system by implementing continuous professional development at each stage of a teacher’s career.

The path to teacher competency encompasses five phases: Training, Certification and Renewal, Employment, Professional Development, and Evaluation (See Figure 11). Teacher training is based on subject-knowledge and specific teaching skills necessary for candidates to be successful as entry-level teachers. Once trained and certified, the teacher pathway is pretty straightforward. They are eligible to be recruited by boards of education as we do in New York by county. Teacher candidates are interviewed and often required to teach model lessons before being recommended to teaching positions.

Once a teacher is hired, they are expected to participate in required ongoing professional development sponsored by the centralized National Center for Teacher Development. Since the late 20th Century, the government has tinkered with reforms to deregulate and decentralize the education system to help Japan catch up with Western industrialized nations.

Figure 11: Teacher Employment, Training, Continuous Professional Development, and Growth

Japan offers three types of certification: Regular, Specialized, and Provisional (See Figure 12). The regular certificates are of three types depending on the degree or school one graduates from. Specialized Certificates are provided to those completing masters degrees; Class I upon graduating from universities; and Class II upon graduating from a junior college.? However, to maintain their license, teachers are required to recertify every ten years. The ten-year period of validity ensures continuous teacher training to keep current with knowledge and skills. This training takes place at universities and the National Center for Teacher Development. Human resources oversees the teacher evaluation process and addresses unsatisfactory performance, as well as rewarding outstanding performance.?

Figure 12: Teacher Training and Teacher Certification

The University system in Japan offers numerous degree opportunities (See Figure 13).? The degrees coincides with the number of years it takes to achieve them. For instance, a bachelor’s degree typically takes four years to complete, whereas doctorates and associates from a college of technology take five. These associate degrees are of a highly technical nature.?

There are typically two salary schedules in Japan: one for teachers in elementary and lower secondary and one for teachers at the upper secondary level. Teachers receive health benefits, retirement pay, and survivor benefits to reduce attrition. Less than 2 percent of teachers leave the profession compared to 7.9 percent in the United States.

Figure: 13

LEADERSHIP

As the number of schools increased, Japan was faced with shortages of qualified administrators. The National Center for Teacher Development (NCTD) provides a dual leadership pathway for building leaders and teachers in cooperation with MEXT to candidates nominated by local boards of education (see Figure 14). These candidates are eligible for school administrator training specific to the positions they are applying for, i.e., vice principal (VP), principal, and coordinators of academic departments. The training typically covers four areas: 1) Organizational Management, 2) School Compliance and Risk Management, 3) Other issues related to the position. Vice principals can be no younger than 37 with 15 years of experience, while the minimum age for principals ios 45 with no teaching experience requirement.

Figure 14

CULTURE

The Japanese people take great pride in their culture as a nation and deliberately preserve it in Article 7 of the Basic Act on Culture and the Arts (see Figures 15 and 16).? Culture and the arts are seen as assets to their nation in the form of economic activity. Not only is it important for citizens to appreciate their? history, but tourism is connected to their culture and an economic stimulus to the economy. Millions of people from around the world visit Japan each year and marvel at its beauty. Some of the most famous sites to visit are the Meiji Jintu, the Yasukuni Shrine, the Hiroshima Peace Memorial, and the Edo Tokyo Museum.???

The Japanese Government promotes culture and the arts through policies that embrace the spirit of the country. These policies are reflected in tourism, town development, international exchange, social welfare, education, and industry. The 2020 Olympics in Tokyo was as much about revitalizing its culture as it was about competition.

The Basic Act on Culture was established with four vision statements:

Vision 1: The Creation, Development, and Succession of Culture and the Arts and Education.

The creation, development and succession of culture and the arts are ensured and everyone can enjoy rich education in culture and the arts and opportunities to participate in cultural and artistic activities.

Vision 2: A Creative and Vibrant Society

Effective investments are made in culture and the arts, creating innovations and contributing to a national brand through international exchange in and transmission of culture and the arts, and thereby a creative and vibrant society has been formed.

Vision 3: A Spiritually Affluent and Diverse Society

Everyone participates in society through culture and the arts, which spreads mutual understanding and creates a spiritually affluent society where diverse values are respected.

Vision 4: Platforms to Promote Culture and the Arts in Regions

In response to these vision statements, strategies to promote local and? regional culture and the arts were formed all over the country. People of diverse backgrounds, cultural arts organizations, and various institutions cooperated to form sustainable and resilient regional cultural communities.

FIGURE 15

Figure 16

Sports and Recreation

Sports and recreation are important features of Japanese culture. It enriches and fulfills people’s lives. While the Japanese have competed successfully in the Olympics, no sport stands out more than baseball for me. In fact, Babe Ruth visited Japan during his heyday to help popularize the game. One needs to only look at the rosters of professional? baseball teams to see the number of great Japanese players the likes of Ichiro Suzuki, Hidelki Matsui, and Shohei Ohtani. The influence they have on the game of baseball is tremendous. Their grit and determination at the batter’s box and on the field is memorable.?

MEXT requires sports and physical education in the curriculum to promote health, vitality, and lifelong fitness. Below are some goals of sports and fitness programs:

1. Sports for all
2. Improvement of the transparency, fairness, and equity in the sport world
3. Improving children’s fitness
4. Para Sports
5. Promoting women’s empowerment through sports
6. Enhancing physical education and sports club activities at school
7. High performance sports
8. Revitalization of regional communities and the economy through sports
9. Enhancement of the physical strength of children?
10. Realization of a lifelong sports society
11. Enhancement of Japan’s international competitiveness

Conclusion

Japan’s image as a nation changed when Western thought influenced traditional thinking about human rights and education being the backbone of its identity as an advanced society. Many inequities were remedied when the “Compulsory Education” was enacted into law. Today, Japan has one of the most successful educational systems in the world.?

One critical decision they made early on was to ensure standardization of teacher quality through the use of Normal Schools. Teacher training was, and still is, rigorous and demanding. Only the best and brightest candidates make it through the system to the teacher ranks and into the classrooms. High quality teaching is a guarantee afforded its citizens.?

Teachers are trusted professionals and granted tenure upon appointment, but must be recertified every ten years to ensure their skills and competencies are kept current. Teacher quality, therefore, is deliberately built into their recertification system. Prefectures, or local governments, provide ongoing and continuous professional development. Human resources evaluates teacher effectiveness and attrition is less than 2 percent.

One special feature of Japan’s education system is the “Morality Period.” We teach what is valued and their deliberate attempt to stress morality speaks volumes about the goals, aspirations, and realities of society. Not only is this a distinct period carved into the instructional day, but morality is expected to be instinctively embedded into every decision and action that teachers and leaders make.Their high regard for moral behavior, and the respect they have for teachers, stand out as unique characteristics of their educational system.?

To ensure high quality schools, principal and teacher leaders are carefully selected to lead the nation’s schools. Another interesting feature is the age requirement for vice principals and principals, i.e; 35 for assistant principals and 45 for principals. This is to ensure maturity and experience.?

High quality instruction, resilience, gender equity, and inclusion, are factors in student success. These are common features in all great school systems.?

References

Ahn, R., Asanuma, S., & Mori, H. (2016). Japan’s teachers earn tenure on day one.?Phi Delta Kappan,?97(6), 27-31.

Gordon, A. (2021).?A modern history of Japan from Tokugawa times to the present. Oxford University Press.

Hidaka, Y., Operario, D., Takenaka, M., Omori, S., Ichikawa, S., & Shirasaka, T. (2008). Attempted suicide and associated risk factors among youth in urban Japan.?Social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology,?43, 752-757.

OECD (2023),?PISA 2022 Results (Volume I):?The State of Learning and Equity in Education, PISA, OECD Publishing, Paris.

Tipton, E. (2017).?Modern Japan: A social and political history. Routledge.

Yamamoto, Y., Enomoto, N., & Yamaguchi, S. (2016). Policies and practices of school leaderships in Japan: a case of leadership development strategies in akita. Educational Considerations, 43(3), 6.

Zhao, Q., KITAMURA, K., YODA, M., & NAITO, H. (2019). A comparative study of the organizational culture of Japanese and Chinese community sports clubs. Journal of Japan Society of Sports Industry, 29(1), 29_5-29_23.