From Reactors to Reflection: Finding My Way to the Field - Part 3a

Part 3a. Path Forward / Duke Power

Part 3a opens with "Path Forward - New Job, New Year," detailing my pivotal decision that sets me on my path to a nuclear power plant under construction in North Carolina. The second section, "We feel this do-it-yourself approach has served us well" - Duke Power, provides a historical account of Duke Power's inception and their early endeavors in the power industry with the establishment of the Catawba Power Company. This section also explores their initial project which utilized the hydroelectric potential of the Catawba River, known as free 'white coal.' We will examine these electrical pioneers and their inaugural hydroelectric design and construction project - the India Hook Shoals Dam and Hydroelectric Plant (Catawba Hydroelectric Plant) from 1900 to 1904.

If you missed previous section of my story "Reactor to Reflection," see the links below:

• Part 1, From Reactors to Reflection: My Journey in Building Nuclear Power Plants (1972-1985) - See the following link: (1) From Reactors to Reflection: My Journey in Building Nuclear Power Plants (1972-1985) - Part 1 | LinkedIn
• Part 2, From Reactors to Reflection: My Nuclear Apprenticeship - See the following link: (1) From Reactors to Reflection: My Nuclear Apprenticeship - Part 2 | LinkedIn

Shorter Versions of Part 2:

• This is a shorter version of Part 2 with only section 2j, reflecting on the testing of the first generation of AutoCAD system in the 70s. (1) From Reactors to Reflection: First Generation CADD Test - 50 years ago | LinkedIn
• This is a shorter version of Part 2 with only the sections reflecting on the workforce challenges a woman in engineering faced in the 70s. (1) Reactors to Reflection: Workforce challenges in the 70s | LinkedIn

Stay tuned for future parts to my story "Reactors to Reflection:"

• Part 3b, Finding My Way to the Field - Nuclear Piping 101 - Catawba and McGuire Nuclear Station
• Part 4, Pipes to Protests - Seabrook Nuclear Station
• Part 5, WPPSS to Woops - Satsop Nuclear Station

Path Forward - New Year New Job

Part 2, From Reactors to Reflection: My Nuclear Apprenticeship, ended with Stone Webster (S&W) turning down my field application and my manager declaring, "The only place for a woman on a construction site is in the front office as a secretary." Now, Part 3a and b will detail my ascent to the top of the reactor building.

My friend John P., an engineer I worked with at S&W, informed me that he was departing to take a position at EDS Nuclear Inc. (EDS). Knowing my aspiration to become a field engineer and the challenges I've encountered in securing a construction field assignment, he recommended that I explore career opportunities with EDS as a pathway to the construction site.

EDS was a consulting engineering firm headquartered in San Francisco, with additional branches in New York, Paris, and various nuclear project sites. The company provided engineering management and technical support services throughout the nuclear industry to utilities, architects, engineers, constructors, and equipment suppliers.

By 1977, EDS had contributed to over sixty nuclear power plant projects worldwide. The company boasted a professional team of more than 200 engineers with expertise in nuclear, mechanical, electrical, and civil engineering. They offered extensive support to clients during every stage of nuclear power plant development, from the initial concept to detailed engineering design and analysis, and through to construction, commissioning, and operation. They provided clients full access to a wide array of management consulting services and engineering analysis capabilities, ensuring clients are assisted in the most efficient and timely manner possible.

I interviewed with EDS and was offered a Pipe Support Engineer position to assist Duke Power (now Duke Energy) on one of their nuclear power plant projects in the Charlotte, NC area. Meanwhile, my friend is headed off to establish a new office for EDS in the Boston area. I am aware that his endorsement played a big role in securing my job offer, and I am grateful for his recognition of my abilities and support.

The opportunity excited me, yet I felt apprehensive about leaving my family, friends, and my boat, Fantasea, moored for the winter in Marblehead. Another concern was departing before completing my bachelor's in science in Civil Engineering at Northeastern University, which I was nearing the end of.

The offer was attractive, including relocation expenses to Charlotte, 840 miles away. However, I had never traveled further south than New York City. It may seem insignificant given today's ease of communication, but back in the 70s, without the internet, keeping in touch with family and friends meant writing letters or making costly long-distance calls.

In the end, I decided to heed the call to follow the path to the construction site. After five and a half years at S&W, I moved on. The movers arrived the week before Christmas to pack up and transport my belongings. With the holiday season behind me, I embarked on my journey to Charlotte, ready to start afresh with a new job in the New Year.

My Initial Assignment

The initial assignment as a Pipe Support Engineer was to conducting small bore nuclear pipe analysis and designing pipe supports at EDS's office in Charlotte. This role was expected to transition into a construction field position at Duke's Catawba Nuclear Station within a few months, which was already under construction. Initially, I felt nervous, but they reassured me that my background in structural design from S&W, combined with my academic engineering coursework at Northeastern, would enable me to adapt swiftly to pipe analysis and designing supports, and they promised to provide the necessary assistance and support.

Upon my arrival, I received a warm welcome. At EDS's Charlotte office, we shared office space with Duke's project teams. I joined the EDS Catawba Team of around 10 engineers, and our team was growing. To my delight, there were two other females on the EDS Catawba Team. All of us in the office had relocated to Charlotte from different parts of the country. Being a youthful group of Boomers, we found it easy to collaborate and bond, the average age of the staff was 28 years old. This was a welcome departure from the traditional engineering S&W culture. More on our EDS team is forthcoming Part 3b. Finding My Way to the Field - Nuclear Piping 101 - Catawba and McGuire Nuclear Station

"We feel this do-it-yourself approach has served us well." - Duke Power

EDS served as a nuclear piping engineering consultant for Duke Power, now known as Duke Energy. Duke is among the few utilities that manage significant portions of plant design and construction in-house, acting as both the primary engineer and contractor for their projects. This approach started in their early formative years, and this do-it-yourself policy continues today.

Similar to S&W, as noted in Part 2 From Reactors to Reflection: My Nuclear Apprenticeship, Duke Power was a trailblazer in the power industry, building and investing in power utilities.

Before exploring nuclear power plants, it is essential to understand the history of electricity, power generation, and the evolution of production methods. Initially, during the industrial revolution, factories were constrained to locations near water sources for power. The advent of the steam engine liberated factories from these geographical limitations, as they could now be powered by steam generated from coal or firewood. The sight of a steam-powered factory, with its single, colossal steam engine turning a central steel drive shaft that extended throughout the factory must have been quite remarkable and noisy.

The early 19th century saw progress in electrical science, yet the most significant developments in electrical engineering did not occur until the late 19th century. Thomas Edison's invention of the electric light bulb in late 1879 ignited the public's imagination with visions of brightly lit cities at night, electric streetcars, and factories powered by electric motors. As cities and towns across America vied for the newest symbol of progress and modernity, the Southern states viewed electricity an opportunity to attract Northern textile factories to invest in their region.

Thomas Edison's work in electricity during the late 1870s and 1880s spurred the adoption of waterpower for electric generation. The earliest hydroelectric plants were direct current (DC) stations, built to provide power for arc and incandescent lighting. From the mid to late 1880s, the number of hydroelectric plants increased significantly, mirroring the growth of the electric lighting industry and the development of electric motors. By 1886, there were 40 to 50 electric lighting plants in operation or under construction in the U.S. and Canada.

An example is the DC power station constructed by Stone & Webster in 1890, which supplied electricity to a paper manufacturing company in Maine. This is mentioned in my Part 2, From Reactors to Reflection: My Nuclear Apprenticeship.

The full potential of hydroelectric power was not tapped until the successful commercial demonstration of alternating current (AC) at Niagara Falls in 1895. George Westinghouse secured the contract to create a power delivery system from Niagara Falls, advocating for an AC system against Thomas Edison's direct current (DC) system proposal. AC facilitates the generation of electricity at one voltage, increased through transformers to a higher voltage for transmission, and then it is decreased through transformers for consumer use. AC is also more cost-effective as it can carry high voltages over long distances through copper wires. This enables the production of electricity at a single source and its distribution to consumers in urban settings or to industrial customers. The practical and financial success of the Niagara plant changed the power generation industry and set in motion the electrical revolution in the U.S.

Despite the advent of electric motors, the steam era in factories continued well into the late 19th Century. By 1900, electric motors accounted for less than 5% of the mechanical drive power in American factories. This gradual transition was attributed to the substantial investment required to retool the factories for the new electrically driven equipment and the limited availability of electricity, a circumstance that was on the cusp of transformation.

One of the challenges involved the requirement for a factory to build a power plant and the costs associated with producing electricity from coal, which often led to disappointing savings. With the adoption of free "white coal" for generating hydropower, the critical issue became the location of the plant to facilitate the transmission of electricity. Until about 1910, plenty of the factories looked at the new electrical drive system, but still opted for good old-fashioned steam equipment.

This paved the way for investors to capitalize on the development and sale of power. By 1889, the United States had 560 registered electric companies, with 200 utilizing hydropower to produce some or all of their electricity. Moreover, the demand stemmed not only from factories but also from human consumption of electricity, akin to the internet demand of our era. The initial investors faced challenges such as rapidly evolving technology and financial difficulties in constructing power plants, as exemplified by the early hurdles encountered by Duke Power.

From the inception of electrical generation, the choice of fuel source has been a driving force of change. From hydro to coal, oil, nuclear, wind, and solar, the quest has been to find the source that can meet consumers power demands, produce electricity cost-effectively, and, in the 21st century, minimize harm to our climate.

To understand Duke Energy's influence on the power industry and the interconnected power grid transmission system they developed, I will start with their early exploration into hydroelectric power and then proceed 74 years later with my experiences working on the construction of two of their nuclear power plants in the 1970s, as Duke Energy continued to diversify its energy sources.

Several key people were involved in the early start of Duke Power. As I am not a power expert, I will do my best in summarizing my research into the formation of Duke Power and the difficulties in building of their first dam and hydroelectric station on the Catawba River. This first project had significant impact on the Piedmont area of North and South Carolina and a chain of lakes and power plants that would follow, including the two I was about to be involved in, the Catawba Nuclear Station and the McGuire Nuclear Station.

The Hydroelectric Pioneers of the South

The Duke Family

The Duke family were pioneers in the tobacco industry, which laid the foundation for their wealth. They obtained a license for the first automated cigarette manufacturing machine, setting the stage for modern cigarette production and marketing. By 1900, their American Tabacco Company was responsible for four-fifths of tobacco production in the United States, with the exception of cigars.

As industrial tycoons, they expanded into textiles in 1892, establishing their first textile mill in Durham, North Carolina. By 1899, under the leadership of B.N. Duke, they formed the American Development Company, acquiring land along the Catawba River and its water rights. They foresaw the river's potential as a powerful resource, often referred to as free "white coal" during this era. Furthermore, they had the financial resources necessary to invest the substantial capital needed to construct dams and power stations needed to form electric utility companies.

W.C. Whitner

William Church Whitner, a pivotal figure in the early development of Duke Power, was an engineering graduate from the University of South Carolina. W.C. Whitner was recruited by the town of Anderson, SC, to constructs a waterworks system and an electric plant. By 1890, he had completed a small coal-powered, steam-driven electric plant, but it proved to be too costly to operate.

W.C. Whitner sought a more cost-effective method of generating alternating current (AC) electricity from river currents. He consulted Nikola Tesla in New York for advice on AC and to examine the electrical machinery available in the North. In 1894, he returned to Anderson with plans to construct an AC hydroelectric power plant at High Shoals on the Rocky River, six miles from Anderson. Despite skepticism and resistance to his concept of transmitting electrical power over bare wires across such a distance, which complicated his efforts to secure funding for the experimental plant, the owners of Anderson Water, Light, and Power Company eventually provided sufficient capital for a small hydro plant. Within a year, W.C. Whitner successfully carried out the High Shoals Experiment on the Rocky River and supplied power to Anderson.

Following W.C. Whitner's initial success, more investors provided the capital required for his subsequent project, the expansive Portman Shoals Hydroelectric Station on the Seneca River, whose construction commenced in 1896. During this period, W.C. Whitner employed a promising young engineer named William States Lee as his assistant, who would eventually become instrumental in establishing Duke Power.

Finished in 1897, the Portman Shoals Station achieved a milestone by transmitting electricity over 11 miles, setting a record for the longest distance in the U.S. at that time and illuminating the town of Anderson, subsequently nicknamed "The Electric City." Moreover, it was the nation's first power plant to generate high-voltage power without employing step-up transformers.

The Wylie's

Dr. W.G. Wylie, a New York physician, would have been keenly aware of the country's pursuit of electrical power. In the late 1890s, newspapers were abuzz with the "War of Currents" between alternating current (AC - George Westinghouse) and direct current (DC - Thomas Edison), the AC electrification of the 1893 Chicago World Fair, and the 1895 inauguration of first hydroelectric plant for large-scale commercial AC power generation in the United States at Niagara Falls. These events likely influenced Dr. W.G. Wylie to invest in harnessing the Catawba River's power near his childhood home in Chester, S.C. His early college years in engineering also fueled his enthusiasm for this endeavor.

In the late 1890s, Dr. W.G. Wylie and his brother, W.H. Wylie, started investing in the Catawba River area. They had stock in the Anderson Water, Light, and Power Company, as well as the Portman Shoals Hydroelectric Station, making them quite familiar with W.C. Whitner's engineering experience and accomplishments in designing and constructing hydroelectric power plants.

The Catawba Power Company - Harnessing the Catawba River

Following the successful completion of the Portman Shoals Hydroelectric Station, W.C. Whitner proceeded to design and construct a significant hydroelectric project on the Chattahoochee River in Georgia. He delegated responsibility to W.S. Lee while he investigated potential hydroelectric plant sites on the Catawba River. W.C. Whitner conducted surveys and selected an old mill site at India Hook Shoals as the optimal location for a dam and powerhouse.

The proposed location for the hydroelectric plant would facilitate the linking of transmission lines to the city of Rock Hill, with a population of 5,485 in 1900, situated approximately 6 miles away. Furthermore, it could extend to the city of Charlotte, which had a population of 11,557 in 1900 and is 16 miles distant. However, the initiative was not aimed at public power but rather at supplying electricity to local cotton mills and promoting the industrialization of the region.

The Catawba River, susceptible to flooding and droughts, and dotted with shoals and waterfalls, was too tumultuous for navigation, resulting in minimal industrial development in the Piedmont vicinity of North and South Carolina. The South, in the late 1800's was less industrialized than the Northeast, stood to benefit from electrifying the textile mills—a change that later would result in significantly reducing the industrial gap between the North and the South. Recognizing this opportunity, the Dukes and Wylies invested in land along the Catawba River with anticipation of electricity advancements would soon light up the mill.

Despite the challenges it presented, the Catawba River promised W.C. Whitner a greater power capacity than his previous projects. Constructing a dam would necessitate securing capital to purchase land around India Hook Shoals. With this goal, he sought out W.G. Wylie, a past investor in the Portman Shoals project, to discuss harnessing the Catawba River's "white coal."

In 1898, the Wylies, along with W.C. Whitner, founded the Catawba Power Company and began planning their project. W.C. Whitner finished surveying the property and the riverbed, then commenced the development of the plans and specifications for the India Hook Shoals site.

In early 1899, the South Carolina Legislature received a bill that granted water rights and permitted the construction of a dam and hydroelectric power station at India Hook Shoals on the Catawba River. Following legislative approval, the company began to acquire the necessary property rights along the river to proceed with their project.

The dam's construction would disrupt the river's natural course, necessitating the acquisition of upstream land that would be inundated by a lake, projected to span 8 to 12 miles. This real estate procurement process was both time-consuming and costly. The company secured numerous options on properties stretching five miles upstream from the dam site on both sides of the river, compensating the landowners with cash payments. It has been reported that a premium rate as high as $70 per acre is being paid, which is equivalent to $2,612 in today's currency.

In order to secure funding for their costly venture, they established a formal corporate structure that allowed them to issue stock. The Catawba Power Company was officially established on April 5, 1900, with W.G. Wylie serving as president and W.C. Whitner holding the positions of general manager and chief engineer.

Building the India Hook Shoals Dam and Hydro Power Plant

By April 1900, the Catawba Power Company had secured 2,500 acres of land upstream, including the project site at India Hook Shoals for the construction of the plant and dam. The original design specification was for a dam that was 20 feet high, 400 feet long, 21 feet at the bottom 12 feet at the top, all of solid masonry, besides 500 feet built of earth with stone core. It was estimated to contain more than 6,000 yards of masonry and would need 450,000 bricks to build the powerhouse. W.C. Whitner's design located the hydroelectric power plant on the westside of the river.

The Catawba Power Company revealed to its shareholders that the total cost for acquiring the land ($96K already expended), constructing the dam, the powerhouse, and installing the hydraulic and electrical equipment would amount to approximately $210,000 in cash (which is equivalent to $7.8 million today). Once operational, they projected the expense costs to be around $6,000, with an expected revenue of $60,000 within ten months. They expressed confidence in the venture's success and anticipated the company's capital stock to reach $300,000 within the span of a year.

W.C. Whitner, who had been planning this project for several years, projected an eight-month construction timeline. Once the company was formally established, it solicited construction bids.

In April 1900, the Rock Hill Herald lauded the project's progress, stating. "It would afford our community the chance to secure power at minimal cost and in ample quantity to render Rock Hill the 'Lowell of the South,' should our citizens be prudent and seize the opportunity before them." The Catawba Power Company would need to market its power, and Rock Hill was encouraging its factory owners to consider purchasing their electricity, which the company asserted would be more economical than that generated by coal-fired steam plants.

During this era, constructing dams was one of the most significant and expensive tasks in the development of hydroelectric plants, particularly when contrasted with the construction of fossil-fueled steam plants, which were the alternative at the time. However, the availability, mining, shipment, and cost of coal were more expensive than the freely available "white coal."

A significant early challenge was deciding which electricity source to support in the "War of the Currents," be it AC or DC. By 1900, AC had emerged victorious, but the manufacture of electrical machinery was still in an experimental phase. With technology advancing swiftly, electric equipment manufacturers struggled to keep pace with the changes and meet the demand for their expensive turbines and generators.

Constructing a power generation plant and transmission system is a massive endeavor, even today. Considering the rudimentary technology and equipment of the early 1900s, the challenge was indeed daunting. Let's journey back to 1900 and examine some of the construction risks and challenges these hydroelectric pioneers faced in building the India Hook Shoals Dam and Hydroelectric Power Plant

The following accounts are sourced from newspaper articles in the Rock Hill Herald, Yorkville Enquirer, and the Charlotte Observer.

Design - Turning Water into Electricity

There were four major components of the final design:

• A. An earthen dam with a masonry core wall to be constructed on the east bank of the river, was 295 feet long, with the necessary abutments and wing walls to properly retain the earth.
• B. The dam proper, of stone and concrete masonry, extending across the riverbed for 585 feet, with a width of 21 feet at the bottom 12 feet at the top.
• C. The powerhouse located on the west side of the river featured a foundation of granite masonry with arched openings to accommodate various machines and to allow water to enter and exit extends 196 feet in length.
• D. A 150-foot masonry wall was designed to join the powerhouse with the west bank of the river.

The dam's span measured a total of 1,226 feet from one end to the other. It was designed with a height to accommodate a head of water 25 feet above the mean low water level and engineered to withstand the greatest known flood at that time. The dam's height varied from thirty to fifty-two feet, depending on the topography of the riverbed's bottom and the adjoining shoreline.

The powerhouse, which really forms one section of the dam, is 35 feet wide and 196 feet long. It is located on the west side of the river and constructed of brick, with stone trimming and slate roof supported by steel trusses. It provides a spacious and well-lit enclosure for the generators and associated machinery.

The powerhouse is engineered to handle eight power units, yielding a total of 8,000 horsepower. Each unit consists of a water wheel unit composed of three 54-in. special pattern turbines mounted on horizontal shafts which are connected to the electric generators via rope drives. The generators are three-phase, 60-cycle, alternating-current machines with a capacity of 750 kW. It includes all essential switchboards, lightning arresters, and other apparatus to guarantee the safety and dependability of service. The design efficiency was guaranteed at 80% from to full gate, under a 25-ft. head, each turbine using approximately 15,000 cu. ft. of water per minute at 37.5 revolutions. At the time, it was heralded as "one of the most comprehensively equipped power plants in the nation, with its apparatus designed using the finest modern engineering expertise."

Management Difficulties

W.C. Whitney oversaw the project as the general manager and chief engineer, while Dr. W.G. Wylie, president and a major financier, resided in New York City and maintained his medical practice. Dr. W.G. Wylie made periodic visits to the site and attended stockholders' meetings. R.H. Wylie, his brother, served as vice-president and was responsible for managing the company's business affairs locally.

W.C. Whitner faced all the technical challenges and pushed for completion, yet the river was unyielding. Devastating floods, caused by unusually heavy rains, damaged the work and destroyed equipment. W.C. Whitner's engineering reputation suffered a severe setback when, in late December 1901, floodwaters engulfed the South, leading to the collapse of five relatively new power dams within forty-eight hours. Three of these dams, situated in Anderson (Portman Shoal), South Carolina; Tallassee, Alabama; and Columbus, Georgia, were constructed by W.C. Whitner.

In August 1902, W.C. Whitner sold his shares of interest in the Catawba project to the Wylies and resigned to take up the role of Chief Engineer at the Virginia Passenger & Power Co. in Richmond, Va. Although no specific reason was provided, there was speculation that his sudden departure might have been due to an engineering or management disagreement with Dr. W.G. Wylie. W.C. Whitner's departure left Dr. Wylie firmly committed to the Catawba Power Dam project, despite the escalating construction debts.

Schuyler Hazard, previously the Division Engineer for the New York Central & Hudson River Railroad, and who had joined the project as Resident Engineer under W.C. Whitney, was appointed Chief Engineer following W.C. Whitney's departure.

Later in 1902, W.S. Lee, who had completed the Chattahoochee River Project in Georgia, joined the Catawba Power Company team. Dr. W.G. Wylie, familiar with his engineering skills from past endeavors, deemed him the ideal candidate to steer the project back on track and bring it to completion. Throughout the remainder of the construction, W.S. Lee served as the Chief Engineer and was later elected as the Vice President of the Catawba Power Company.

Captial Investment Challenges

Despite early delays, stock sales persisted. However, with growing uncertainty about the plant's completion, Dr. W.G. Wylie consistently invested personal funds to finance the project's construction. In 1903, as the dam neared completion, Dr. Wylie lacked the additional $250,000 (equivalent to $8.9M today) required to finish the powerhouse and purchase the necessary equipment. The Catawba Power Company had an authorized bond issue of $500,000 (equivalent to $17.8M today), with $400,000 already sold. Dr. Wylie sought to authorize a new bond issue, but the subscribers to the previous issues only consented to the unsold $100,000 of the original authorization. By 1903, there was widespread doubt about the project's completion.

The Wylies had to invest $350,000 (equivalent to $12.4M today) of their personal funds into the project. This financial commitment helped secure additional investment, as a banker sent an engineer to assess the project's progress before providing funds. Ultimately, the project's final cost was estimated to exceed $1 million, equivalent to about $35.6 million today.

Site Logistics - A Birds Eye view of the Construction Camp

The India Hook Shoals project site laid seven winding, hilly, and muddy miles from Rock Hill. The road traversed a mountain range running north to south, with the Catawba River situated to the east of this range. Since it was 1900 and automotive transportation was in its infancy, the predominant modes of transport were wagons, mules, horses, and buggies. This necessitated the construction of a camp to accommodate the more than 400 workers at the project site.

The camp was arranged like a miniature town with a single main street. Flanking this street was two country stores, constructed from rough-hewn lumber. Beyond the stores lies the camp, and crowning it all was the Catawba Power Company's headquarters, featuring a large two-story house. Scattered across the grounds were the offices of the engineer, treasurer, commissary, and superintendent.

The camp and headquarters were separated by a tall fence. A sign at the entrance declared that horses must be tethered outside the fenced area. Throughout the grounds, printed cards displayed the whistle codes. The workers in the settlement would rise, eat breakfast, start work, and finish their shifts to the sound of the whistle, and once a week, they would line up at the cashier's window to the same signal to receive their wages.

In the early 1900s, without the computers, internet, or smartphones, communication was limited to telegraphy, while telephone technology was still nascent. On a construction site in early 1900s, old fashion direct in-person communication was essential. To facilitate this, a temporary pontoon bridge was built to connect the team with workers on the west and east banks of the Catawba River.

The area was dotted with storage spaces for equipment and materials arriving before the completion of the powerhouse. Items such as turbines, sections of driving wheels, wire ropes, shafting, pulleys, and various other machinery would be delivered by wagons pulled with donkey, stacked and readied for installation.

The hillsides were sprinkled with some cabins and there was a larger camp constructed just south of the company quarters office. Although the worker camp was built for temporary use and was rudimentary, it was reported they were comfortably furnished and equipped with water works and well-maintained sanitary facilities.

Homes for the engineers, contractors, and officials were constructed on the cliff west of the basin, offering them a panoramic view of the project and the Catawba Valley from their windows. Plank gangways extend from the knoll where the houses stood, leading down to the dam and basin.

"Standing on the cliff, one can look down and see 400 men at work on the various sections of the plant. The skyline is dotted with booms and derricks, and the sputtering exhaust from ten hoisting engines is heard. - December 28, 1902, Wade H. Harris, reporter for Charolotte Observer.

• Author's Note: In my final construction project before retirement, I had the opportunity to learn about establishing and overseeing a construction camp for 1,000 workers. I authored the international camp specifications for living standards and for three years, I was in charge of in-country oversight that the standards were being enforced at the camp. The challenges of having so many workers both living and working on-site continues to present us construction challenges even today.

The Builders Who Labored at the Site

During the early 20th century in the South, African Americans constituted the majority of construction workers. While trade unions were present in the North during the early 1900s, they were largely absent in the South. Workers were grouped based on the various skills needed for the job. At the height of the project, over 400 workers resided and labored at the site.

December 28, 1902, Wade H. Harris, reporter for Charolotte Observer: "In the foreground is seen a squad of hands on a raised platform mixing the sand, cement, and crushed stone to go into the powerhouse construction; to the east, at the base of the hill are teams, engines, and men at work on the wing of the dam; to the west a dummy engine is seen bringing a load of stone from the quarry."

"There are forces at work in the sawmill; in the brickyard; in the crushing plant and in the sand pits; pumping squads are tending their machinery at a dozen different localities about the stores and supply house, all the various branches of the well-organized system being in charge of a competent superintendent."

High Construction Wage Rates

At the outset of the project, local concerns were raised about the high wages paid during construction of the power plant and the potential effects on the local community's capacity to recruit the required workforce for the summer agricultural season. It was reported in the news that the laborers at the construction site were being paid $1 per day ($35 a day today).

In government employment, an eight-hour workday was mandated by law, but for non-government jobs, such as the construction of the dam and hydroelectric plant, there were no labor laws in the early 1900s dictating the length of a legal day's work or weekly hours in southern states. It could be assumed that in this region of South Carolina, the workday average might be 10 hours, equating to a wage of 10 cents per hour ($3.55 per hour today). Is this high or low for the time period?

In 1903, the average national laborer's wage for construction work in major cities was around 16 cents per hour ($5.68 per hour today), with a typical workweek of 56 hours. However, there was no labor data reported from cities in the South.

For comparison, in 1905, regular farm help in South Carolina with room and board was paid $8 to $10 monthly ($284-$355 today). Therefore, if a construction site required more than 400 workers paying each a $1 per day during the agricultural season, it could explain the local citizens' discontent with the project, particularly due to the construction delays affecting four farming seasons, contrary to the single season initially advertised by the company.

This higher labor rate could also contribute to the cost overrun from the company's initial estimate in 1900, prior to bidding out the construction work.

Accidents - "The worker's fault"

Reports suggest that since construction commenced, there had been numerous fatalities due to both accidental and intentional violent incidents. Reviewing these accidents reveals the advancements in safety over the past century, highlighting a shift from a time when safety standards frequently attributed blame to the workers.

In July 1901, a worker sustained serious injuries in the evening when a large scoop for transporting crushed rock toppled onto him. Later, in September, a tragic incident occurred when a boy employed on the project drowned. He had leaped from a flatboat carrying several other workers, was carried off by the river's current, and his body was never recovered.

In 1902 these were several accidents reported.

• In March there was a report of an accident involving a breaking boom from a derrick, which seriously injured two workers.
• In June two workers were drowned when floating an 80-foot-long log down the river to the site.
• In October there was an accidental explosion of 75 pounds of dynamite and nine boxes of powder stored in a wooden 6-foot magazine storage unit. It was not explained how, but they thought was it was a bullet. Thankfully no one was hurt, but the explosion could be heard and felt 7 miles away in Fort Mill.
• Also, in October a tragic accident that killed a worker in the quarry on the east side of the river when a 50-pound rock fell from the embarkment and stuck the worker.

In 1903, numerous accidents were reported during the final push for completion.

• In January of that year, a boat capsized while navigating swift river currents, throwing five people overboard and leading to one fatality.
• The next day, a derrick boom collapsed onto a worker. The newspaper stated, "The accident is baffling, given that the boom was not loaded. It is possible that the worker's vigilance was compromised, not anticipating the potential danger as he might have if it had been bearing the weight of stone."

• In July 1903, an engineering summer intern student supervising a squad of workers was killed when three stone-laden cars broke free and rushed towards the end of the coffer dam. Attempting to halt the cars, the student was caught and dragged to his death. The tramway, extending over the coffer dam, transports stone from the quarry to the dam. The report indicated that the accident was caused by the brakeman's failure to stop the cars, which resulted in the student being dragged into the river.

Note: Following the project's completion, numerous accident cases alleging injury-related losses were brought to court against Catawba Power Company, with several being resolved in the plaintiff's favor.

Camp Life - "The Battles on the Catawba"

Local news reports also chronicled other issues that gave concern to the local citizen in Rock Hill. Incidents of drinking, card games, prostitution, and brawls near the project site and camp, occasionally escalating to gunfire with some fatalities being reported. This evokes the mining camp era of the 1800s, marked by a rush to lay claim to the hard-earned wages of the laboring workers.

In 1901 a local newspaper reported the woods near the site were said to be overrun with men from the camp and women prostitutes from Charlotte who would drink, play cards, and engage in fights. The company and its managers did not condone this behavior but found it nearly impossible to prevent, citing "the large number of male laborers in the camp which inevitably attracted women of ill-repute to the area surrounding the camp."

• In April 1901, it was reported that a woman was shot and killed.
• In September 1901, there was a shooting at the camp, leaving a person critically injured and not expected to survive. The motives and the identity of the shooter were unknown, but reports suggested an argument over a woman was somehow involved with the incident.

In 1902 a reporter interviewed the local magistrate regarding the conditions at the Dam. The magistrate acknowledged that it had been a challenging environment but noted that improvements had been implemented. Previously, under the contractors' management, little attention was given to the workers' conduct outside of work hours. However, since the Catawba Power Company took over the operations after three contractors defaulted, concerted efforts have been made to ensure proper behavior among the workers. The magistrate mentioned that the camp remains a tough place, but now buildings are being dispersed across the area rather than clustered together. A new system has also been introduced, assigning workers to specific buildings and bunks. The magistrate attributed most of the trouble to illicit liquor and women, with whiskey sellers from nearby towns targeting workers on payday setting up sales in the wooded area near the camp.

• The year started with another card game shooting at the Camp over a 30-cent dispute.
• In April there was a fight and shooting between two workers, who were brothers, which resulted in the death of one.

• In August as a resulting of illegal alcohol and drinking another shooting over cards and a fight resulting in a stabbing between two women were reported by the local paper with a headline of "The Battle at the Catawba."
• In November 1902 there was another fight at the plant which resulted in a police officer being attacked on site and then beaten and robbed on the road back to town which followed with arrests. This resulted in a law case against the Catawba Power Company management team involved in the on-site fight.
• Reports from December 1902 indicated that the whiskey situation in the town of Fort Mill, located about 4 miles from the site on the east side of the river, was deteriorating. The city observed a significant influx of liquor arriving on the trains from Charolette, not intended for local consumption in Fort Mills, but rather for the workers at the Catawba Power Company's construction site. It has been observed that a significant number of workers were employed at the site, with a weekly payroll between $1,000 and $1,500, which is equivalent to $36,000 to $55,000 in today's currency. Fort Mill anticipates the continuation of illicit liquor traffic until the departure of the "Power company gang."

In 1903 conditions continued, but State constables started patrolling the nearby woods, confiscating 'blind tiger' whiskey, which refers to alcohol from unlicensed vendors.

• In March 1903 there was more reports of a fight, shooting and arrest at the camp.
• In August 1903, the magistrate started conducting weekly courts at the project every Saturday to deal with minor offenses such as selling liquor, gambling, and assault and battery, imposing fines as high as a $100 for liquor sales (the equivalent of $3,500 today) or two months on the chain gang. The local news noted that the Sheriff and Magistrate's actions had markedly restored order around the project area, a significant change from the situation before the institution of the Saturday courts.

Lean Approach - Material Sourced On site

On the east side of the basin, a railroad was constructed with tracks extending to one of the quarries. This quarry provided the stone blocks for the dam, and an engine traversed back and forth along these tracks, transporting granite blocks, crushed stone, cement, and sand. On the east side there was also a rock quarry and a railroad. A third quarry was located about a mile from the dam on the east side.

Supply Chain Mangement Challengers - Mule Powered Deliveries

Materials and equipment were delivered to Rock Hill by rail, then transported by wagon and mule across six miles of winding, hilly, and muddy terrain to the project site. Inclement weather, including rain and subsequent flooding, hindered deliveries, while the summer's severe heat impacted delivery conditions. It was reported that numerous animals exhibited signs of distress while hauling materials, and unfortunately, one horse succumbed to the heat.

The Coal, Cement and Supply Company was awarded the largest contract ever in the South for cement supply. The company was contracted to deliver 400 carloads of Portland Cement for the project, having won the contract against competitors from both the north and south.

Cement was transported to the site via railroad in bags and then transferred over the roads by eight wagons, each drawn by four mules. These wagons were used to shuttle supplies to and fro. An article mentioned that trees and bushes were covered in cement dust that leaked from the sacks. Additionally, a report stated that a wagon carrying 5,000 pounds of cement to the construction site became detached on a steep hill, leading to the death of two mules; fortunately, no workers were injured.

The procurement and transportation of the necessary electrical equipment to the construction site presented a significant challenge, taking about two and a half years to complete. On June 12, 1901, the Rock Hill Herald reported that the town had not fully realized the importance of the Rock Hill Company's construction endeavor. This awareness dawned as the delivery and unloading of heavy machinery commenced, with a total of 50 railcar loads anticipated.

A custom wagon, costing $190 (equivalent to $7,000 in current value), was constructed to transport machinery six miles from the train depot. The first shipments included two castings, each weighing 10,500 pounds, two draft tubes at 3,679 pounds each, and a base plate at 15,156 pounds. Subsequent deliveries were expected to include even larger equipment: four shafting segments, each weighing 18,000 pounds, and four generators, each at 26,000 pounds, underscoring the project's enormous scale.

In October 1901, a worker was fatally injured while transporting a heavy casting. The casting, weighing 3,564 pounds, was of such a shape that it could not be transported in a standard wagon. Instead, it was placed on heavy timbers to ride freely between the wagon's front and rear wheels. When the wagon began to move, one of the timbers broke, causing the worker to fall and become trapped under the casting, leading to his death. An immediate investigation reported by the local newspaper revealed that the casting had been properly loaded onto the wagon, and "No reasonable blame could attach to the people in charge of the work."

Reports from May 1902 indicated that several of the heaviest elements for the special transport wagons had yet to be delivered, and that the bridges and roads en route required straightening and widening to accommodate these substantial loads.

At last, in November 1903, the region witnessed the transportation of the heaviest machinery ever recorded in the Rock Hill area. The arrival of four dynamo machines, each weighing approximately 26,000 pounds, was notable. They were transported on three linked wagons, drawn by a team of 12 mules.

The River Was Difficult to Tame - Building the Hydroelectric Plant

Throughout the project, the Catawba Power Company encountered numerous challenges. Some I have noted above. Consequently, securing the required capital investments became increasingly challenging due to construction delays and escalating costs. Investors started to question whether the endeavor would ever reach completion, this skepticism amongst investors would also cause funding delays.

Constructing a dam across the Catawba River posed numerous challenges. As the first dam on the river, it set a precedent for future projects. The introduction of new technology, the transportation of heavy machinery over rural hilly terrain, and the river's tendency to flood all added significant risks to the project.

In early 1900, during the formation of the Catawba Power Company they original estimated the cost at approximately $210,000 in cash (which is equivalent to $7.8 million today) with an estimated 8-month construction schedule.

Upon completion, the Catawba Power Plant's actual schedule spanned 48 months, with the facility officially commencing limited operations and official supplying electricity to Victoria Cotton Mills in Rock Hill on March 30, 1904. According to local newspaper reports, the estimated cost at completion exceeded $1 million, equivalent to $35 million today.

So why did it take 40 months longer and cost 3.85 times higher than the Catawba Power Company's original plan? As a construction manager, let examine the construction means and methods along with schedule delays and issues these hydroelectric pioneers encountered.

1900 - Construction Started

In the spring of 1900, the Catawba Power Company awarded a $52K (equivalent to $1.9M today) construction contract for the dam across the river to A.C. Wright & Company. Work began in June 1900, with an anticipated construction period of about 15 months, aiming for a completion date of September 1, 1901.

• First Slide - 7-months - new date September 1901

This marked the first of several delays that would afflict the project, as the contractor's timeline extended the completion by an additional seven months beyond the initial estimate presented to the shareholders. This early slide suggests that the Catawba Power Company may have lacked awareness of construction requirements for the enormous task at hand. The experience contractor hired would have bid the project based on a schedule they believed was attainable.

Another contract was awarded in July 1900 to Spratt Machine Company for the construction of the powerhouse. Their bid estimated that 500,000 bricks would be needed to construct the powerhouse. Reports indicated that by October 1900, all the bricks had been manufactured.

1901 - The River Raged

In January 1901, a third contractor, Malloy & Boggs, commenced construction of the dam's east wing. Their work included erecting a 100-yard section of the dam from the east side bank of the river to the water's edge. The contractor was to construct tramways for transporting stones a distance of 300 yards from the bluff to the dam site. Meanwhile, on the west side of the river, the foundation for the powerhouse was being laid by one of the other contractors.

In April, the Catawba Power Company announced that satisfactory progress had been made during the winter, and they were optimistic that the dam and powerhouse would be finished before the onset of cold weather later that year.

They did note that the cofferdam had flooded four times over the winter, leading to work stoppages on the westside as the area within the cofferdam was submerged. The cofferdam construction involved driving pine planks into the mud and positioning them adjacently. Once completed, the water is pumped out, leaving the enclosed area virtually dry and safe work environment.

To facilitate construction, multiple cofferdams will be built during the project both upstream and downstream in the river. The process of joining the dam is straightforward. The cofferdam on the west side will be relocated to the east side, causing the river's water to flow to the west side and exit through the powerhouse's base outlets. This will leave the east side dry. With the cofferdam's protection, the masonry dam's connection will be completed. Subsequently, the cofferdam will be removed, the river openings will be sealed one after another, and the water flow will be directed through the powerhouse to generate electricity. The restriction of the river flow will create a lake upstream of the dam.

In May, The Great Flood of 1901 struck the Catawba river area, marking the heaviest flood since 1876, setting a new record for the river's velocity. The normal flow rate of the river is between 65,000 to 70,000 cubic feet per second, but during the flood, it surged to 151,000 cubic feet per second.

Mallory & Boggs, the east side contractor, reported that their derricks and a significant portion of their working equipment were washed away, and a substantial amount of their cement was damaged.

In early June after the flooding, Spratt Machine Company began work on the powerhouse structure.

At the June 20, 1901, stockholder meeting the Catawba Power Company's executives revealed that the dam's progress had fallen short of expectations due to high water levels. The river had risen too high for work to proceed on the dam 18 times since the previous October. Consequently, the contractor has managed to engage his workforce for only 30 days in total since January 1st. However, with favorable weather conditions, the Catawba Power Company anticipates the plant will be operational by the beginning of January 1902. It was also reported that nearly half of the dam's foundation is complete and remains undamaged by the high waters.

• Second Slide - 3-months - new date January 1902

Reports in June indicated that Dr. W.G. Wylie consented to share the contractors' losses caused by high water, agreeing to pay half. The construction contracts for this project lacked force majeure language, making this a notably generous offer from an owner. Over time, force majeure clauses gained standardization and recognition in contracts, especially as commercial and legal practices advanced to meet the demands of modern business and construction.

In July, Mr. R.E. Boggs of Mallory & Boggs, having become "disgusted with the incessant rain and wild antics of the Catawba River," left to secure a contract elsewhere, and his scope of work was taken over by Sanders and Bigham.

August was not any better, the cofferdam was full of water continuously for the month of August. Pumps were employed to take the water out, but the mud settlings were about 3 feet in depth and work had just started to remove the mud.

On October 5, 1901, a Yorkville Enquirer reporter visited the site, we can imagine the construction scene through his account from his site visit:

• "An almost inconceivable amount of rough work, already done, with an almost inconceivable amount still to do."
• The reporter indicate that the riverbanks and channel are lined with rocks. Construction of the dam is divided into two parts: one on the west and one on the east. The eastern section is entirely on dry land, advancing towards the river. To the reporter, this seemed unremarkable, akin to constructing a stone wall. However, the western section's work, enclosed within a cofferdam that also encompasses the powerhouse, was deemed interesting. This small area, approximately a quarter-acre in size, has been the site of frequent flooding issues.

• Inside the cofferdam, workers are actively constructing the powerhouse. The foundation is made of stone, which will also serve as the primary dam. Currently, the structure stands 10 to 15 feet tall, is roughly 10 feet thick, and extends about 150 feet in length, as observed from the rear of the building.
• The foundation for the powerhouse was completed, but as of yet, no wall, except for the part that forms a section of the dam, is being erected. Along the base of the powerhouse walls, there are large arched openings through which water will exit after flowing over the numerous turbine wheels inside the powerhouse. A few pieces of ironwork, such as "I" Beams for the foundation of the powerhouse, have already been positioned.
• Once the powerhouse work is complete, the subsequent step involves dismantling the existing cofferdam and constructing a new one to span the remaining distance across the river. As the dam construction progresses on the east side, the water currently flowing there will be redirected through the powerhouse on the west side.
• The stone used for constructing the powerhouse and other masonry structures is extracted from a bluff located 100 feet to the west. Steam derricks hoist the large blocks from the nearby quarry, placing them atop the wall, nearly ready to be cemented into position. Within the current confines of the cofferdam, three hoisting engines are in operation. The site bustles with 75 to 100 laborers, all actively engaged in their work.
• Heavy castings, air draft tubes, and machinery had begun arriving at the site and stored and awaiting installation.
• The reporter concluded that the completion of the works entirely depends on the river's future behavior. However, even if the river behaves as expected, it will still be several months before this plant can deliver electric power. The estimated cost now stands at approximately $500,000.

Contractors Quit - By the end of 1901, the project faced the departure of two contractors due to the severe challenges and substantial losses brought on by weather and flooding since the start of construction. Despite the Catawba Power Company's willingness to absorb some of the losses, it became too overwhelming for the contractors to proceed.

1. Mallory & Boggs, the east side contractor that faced challenges in July, when R.E. Boggs gave up and left, and they were officially replaced by S.S. Ardway, who commenced work in December.
2. A.C. Wright & Company, the original contractor hired to build the dam, terminated their contract and were released from all commitments. They faced overwhelming obstacles from the beginning. It was reported that they suffered a loss of around $35,000 on a contract, initially valued at $52,000. The contract had a completion date of September 1901; however, with the end date having passed and the project only halfway completed, it would be financially impossible for them to continue. Although they declared the construction of the dam an easy task upon initial site inspection, the challenge of taming the Catawba River proved too formidable for them.

The Catawba Power Company acquired the necessary material and equipment of A.C. Wright & Company at fair value and relieved them from constructing the dam, confident in their ability to complete the work under the leadership of R.H. Wylie, currently acting as the on-site superintendent/general manager. Following the termination of their contract, and equipment purchased, A.C. Wright & Company's estimated losses ranged from $10,000 to $15,000. The Catawba Power Company anticipated that it would begin delivering power by a new end date of September 1902.

• Third Slide - 9-month - new date September 1902

1902

The winter weather had a few days of snowfall that halted work, yet there were no newspaper reports of any other difficulties encountered during the winter months.

A Third Contractor Quits: In May, another contractor, S.S. Ordway & Sons, halted work. Under contract to construct the stonework dam, they suspended operations due to a contract dispute and have engaged an attorney to protect their interests in the event of a likely lawsuit should an amicable settlement not be reached.

Also in May, the local newspaper reported that under the leadership and supervision of W.H. Wylie, and good weather, roughly half of the dam's masonry and two-thirds of the powerhouse were finished, employing around 300 workers at the site. They were optimistic that the dam and the hydroelectric facility would be completed by December 1902.

• Forth Slide - 3-month - new date December 1902

In June the heavy rains caused the river to flow 17 feet above low water. Floods once again submerged the cofferdam, halting work. Pumps were deployed, with hopes to resume work within a few days.

By July, nearly 400 workers were busy taking advantage of the reported good weather. The stone foundation for the powerhouse, that extending into the river, was completed. It was projected that all work within the current cofferdam would be finished in two months, and construction of an additional cofferdam, and extending a third beyond the existing one, had begun. The paper reported that if materials arrived and the weather cooperated, the entire plant was anticipated to be completed by spring 1903, indicating another slide to the end date.

• Fifth Slide - 3-months - new date Spring 1903

Also in July, executives from the Catawba Power Company were meeting with potential clients for contracts to purchase the electricity they will generate. The construction site was attracting many visitors, including textile investors from the North. With the plant's limited production, there was ongoing concerns about the distribution of electricity and which towns will receive it. Local towns, such as Rock Hill, are anxious about where the electricity will be delivered, as it could influence the development of future textile mills in their area.

Dr. W.G. Wylie noted that electricity would soon power cotton mills and emphasized the emerging benefits of hydroelectricity, particularly in light of coal's rising costs. Earlier, there was a reluctance among factories to switch from steam-driven to electric machinery. Initially, some feared that electricity could heighten the risk of fires in factories, and there were concerns about the expense of converting equipment from steam to electric power.

Management Shake Up: As outlined in the preceding section on Management Difficulties, in August, W.C. Whitner, the Chief Engineer who planned and designed the project, along with his brother, left the project. C.S. Hazard took over as the project engineer overseeing the works. Additionally, O.H. Briggs, one of the superintendents, exited the project shortly thereafter in September.

In August, the site experienced further flooding into the cofferdam stopping work.

The claim involving SS. Ordway & Son, the third contractor to quite the project, was resolved in October with a settlement payment of $6000. However, the company was in default, and creditors received $4,500 from that payment.

In December, the company reported numerous challenges that engineers faced in the initial phases of the project, with the most significant issues back in 1901 being high waters. That year saw 50 floods. In contrast, in 1902 the dam had experienced only 12 floods. The contractors have completed the most arduous and painstaking portion of the work. The number of workers currently at the site is limited due to the camp accommodations being available for only 400 individuals. The project is estimated to be completed, with operations expected to commence by June 1903.

• Sixth Slide - 3-month - new date June 1903

1903

The year 1903 began with the Catawba River in a frenzy, as February brought high waters surging over the cofferdam. An engine, employed for driving piles, was swept from the elevated trestle and was never recovered.

In March, work was halted for 20 days due to adverse weather and road conditions. Reports indicated dissatisfaction among those overseeing the project, leading to the Catawba Power Company hiring new personnel. Work was expected to resume with full force.

In April reports indicated that construction work would soon intensify. The winter had posed significant challenges due to cold temperatures and high-water levels, yet the quarries had not ceased operation, preparing thousands of tons of stone for the upcoming summer. At the time, the workforce numbered only 150 men, but plans were in place to increase this figure. W.S. Lee, now Chief Engineer, made a trip to New York to review plans with Dr. W.G. Wylie to hasten the work in the coming favorable months, with the goal of completing the dam before the next winter. The powerhouse foundation was already in place, and a substantial amount of stone had been quarried, with expectations for more as spring advanced.

In July, Dr. W.G. Wylie visited the site to inspect the work and was pleased with the progress. The following is a report from his visit:

• The stonework of the powerhouse had been completed, and the brick structure was halfway up to the frames. It was estimated that the powerhouse structure would be completed in 60 days, after which the installation of the machinery would commence. Beneath the powerhouse, forming part of its foundation, are eight flumes for the giant horizontal turbine wheels. Four of these have already been installed, and two more were in the process of being positioned.
• The stonework for the dam was advancing well. The construction of cofferdams was accelerating. The 115-foot cofferdam, linking to the powerhouse, had risen above the low water mark, and the cribs for the 150-foot cofferdam, connecting to the core wall on the east shore, were almost fully constructed. Nestled between these two cofferdams is a 100-foot sluice, within which the construction of the fourth and final cofferdam will not commence until the stonework in both the 115 and 150-foot dams is complete.
• A workforce of nearly 400 workers is laboring day and sometimes into the night. Although the undertaking is tremendous and arduous, and progress seems slow, the company is confident that good progress is being made.
• A vast quantity of stone is prepared for the masons, ample sand is available, and numerous wagon teams are actively involved in transporting cement daily.
• The derrick system is among the most comprehensive in the country and is now operated to function across the river. Some of the booms measure 80 feet in length. The value of the plant, including hoisting engines, steam drills, derricks, and other equipment, is approximately $40,000, equivalent to $1.4 million today.

A month later In August, Dr. W.G. Wylie reported that the work is progressing satisfactorily under the direction of his brother, W.H. Wylie, and W.S. Lee, the Chief Engineer. He stated that the plant would be ready to furnish power in 6 months, but it would require an additional 6 months for the plant to operate at full capacity of 6000 HP throughout the year. However, considering the water flow, the capacity will increase to 10,000 HP over a period of 8 or 9 months. Dr. W.G Wylie noted that the estimated cost of the plant was now more than $800,000.

Despite many challenges, the newspaper reported the work is considered first-class, and the Catawba Power Company has not shown any inclination to complain or give up. It was also reported that the company is in discussions with the city of Charlotte for the opportunity to bid on a contract to provide lighting and deliver 3000 HP to the city.

• Seventh Slide - 6-month - new end date December 1903

In September, papers reported that the estimated cost for the hydroelectric plant was now nearing $1 million. The Rock Hill businessman believed that the electricity provided by the plant would do more for the city than anything else to date. They believed that factory development spurred by available electricity would double the population and increase the value of real estate by 200 to 300% within five years.

In October 1903, W.S. Lee was elected Vice President and Director of the Catawba Power Company and expressed confidence that the company would be prepared to supply power by January 1904. The rights of way for the pole line to Rock Hill were being secured, and the construction of the power lines would begin upon the arrival of materials.

• Eighth Slide - 1-month - new date January 1904

In 1903, the weather had a lesser impact overall, with only a dozen floods occurring. However, the damage from these floods was mitigated by the presence of a high dam. In November, the final four pieces of field machinery for the dynamos were delivered to the site.

1904 - Delivery of Electricity

The dam was completed on January 13, 1904, the floodgates closed, and the water flow ceased. Hundreds gathered at the site to witness the grand basin being filled with water.

However, the water level had significantly exceeded the estimates made by the Catawba Power Company surveyors. The river was projected to rise for only 12 miles, yet it has risen 13 to 15 miles upstream. As of January 1904, the landowners were quiet but expressed concerns about the potential impact during flooding conditions and whether they would incur serious damage from the overflow.

One issue was the rising waters submerged a bridge over an upstream creek but opening of the floodgates to lower the water allow continued use of the bridge while a new proposed 600-foot-long bridge in a better location was negotiated. As an alternative, The Catawba Power Company established a free ferry service across the river until the new bridge was completed. However, there was a dispute between the County and the Company over who should construct and finance the new bridge that delayed construction. The county determined that Catawba Power Company was responsible for funding the construction of the replacement bridge, a decision that was contested and resulted in a resolution and replacement process that spanned over a year at the inconvenience to the locals. Additionally, the company did encounter property claims because the water surpassed the boundaries of the property the Company did not own or have rights to.

Power Lines - Electricity was the Internet of the Era and Everyone was Power Hungry

During the early stages of power transmission, constructing the dam and the powerhouse also involved setting up lines to deliver electricity to the eagerly awaiting cotton mills and towns. The power lines were built along a direct route that stretched seven and a half miles to Rock Hill.

The construction workers resided in tents as they forged the slender passageways required to direct the electricity. Utilizing mules, oxen, and pure human effort, they erected poles crafted from cypress and chestnut and strung the copper wires that would transmit electrical power to the expectant customers.

Following delivery to Rock Hill, the power grid expanded to include Charlotte and surrounding towns and mills. The electrical transmission line from the plant to Charlotte spanned 32 miles and cost $35,000, which is equivalent to $1.2 million today. The line comprised two aluminum wires, each over half an inch in diameter.

The Birth of Duke Power

By early 1904, the construction of the Catawba Hydroelectric Plant at India Hook Shoals was completed, albeit behind schedule and over budget. It boasted a capacity of 6,000 kilowatts. On March 30, 1904, the dam's head gates were opened, unleashing tons of water that cascaded onto the spiraled blades of a water turbine. As the turbine spun, ropes and pulleys transferred the water's energy to an electric generator, where wires coiled around a magnet generated electricity. This power was supplied to its first customer, the Victoria Cotton Mill in Rock Hill, marking what some consider the inception of Duke Energy. The resulting reservoir was named “Catawba Lake.”

Completed and in Operation - March 30, 1904 - 40 Months Later

To address my initial question regarding the project's delay and cost overruns, it is important to note that the primary factor was the tumultuous Catawba River. This, combined with unprecedented rains and floods, significantly contributed to the schedule delays and increased costs.

Other significant factors, including naivety and inexperience in constructing a hydroelectric dam and powerhouse across a 400-foot turbulent river, rapidly changing electrical technologies; which led to continuous evolution of equipment to improve performance and power output, financial constraints, frequent management changes, contractor defaults, declines in productivity, supply chain disruptions, competition for materials and electrical equipment amid the rapidly escalating demand for power plants, and the challenges of managing a large work force and construction camp, also played a substantial role.

In the end, it was Dr. W.G. Wylie's steadfast persistence and belief that propelled the project forward, despite skepticism about its potential to generate electricity.

• Postscript Note: The final design was implemented after engineering modifications due to flooding challenges encountered during construction. The engineer's design underwent another test with the Great Flood of 1916, which inundated the powerhouse with water and mud, rendering the plant inoperative until repairs were completed. Following the Great Flood of 1916, which also caused extensive damage to residents, infrastructure, and the economy along the Catawba river, additional flood controls were implemented on the river.
• In 1924, the dam was reconstructed, integrating the original facility on the west side into the foundation of the new raised dam, while a new powerhouse equipped with modern technology was built on the east side of the river. This upgrade boosted the power output from 10,000 to 80,000 horsepower. This expansion doubled the height of the dam and increased the lake's surface area to over 13,000 acres and extended the shoreline to 325 miles. In 1960, the lake was renamed in tribute to Dr. W.G. Wylie.

The Formation of Southern Power Company - The Duke's Join the Power Team

Dr. W.G. Wylie had a fortuitous encounter with the Duke brothers, B.N. Duke and J.B. Duke, while attending to their health in New York City. Amid financial difficulties in funding the India Hook Shoals power plant, Dr. Wylie presented the Dukes with investment prospects in the Catawba Power Company. The Dukes acquired a few shares, yet their significant investment came only after the Catawba Hydroelectric Plant at India Hook Shoal was successfully completed and operational.

Dr. W.G. Wylie's plan to build a series of hydroelectric power plants along the Catawba River, coupled with a power grid, garnered the interest of the Dukes, who were already investing in property and water rights. Needing investors for his grand vision, Dr. W.G. Wylie partnered with the Dukes to establish the Southern Power Company. With the Dukes' substantial investments, Dr. W.G. Wylie secured the essential funding to progress with his projects.

Founded in 1905, the Southern Power Company named Dr. W.G. Wylie as its first president, B.N. Duke as its first vice president, and W.S. Lee as its second vice president. At the same time, the Duke's American Development Company purchased all the outstanding capital stock of Dr. W.G. Wylie's Catawba Power Company.

This marked the beginning of what is known today as Duke Energy, starting with the Catawba Power Company, followed by the Southern Power Company in 1905, and eventually in 1924 becoming known as Duke Power.

The Duke's initial motivation was to cultivate industrial consumers rather than serve rural or residential customers. They understood that electricity production was key to factory growth. With low power and labor costs, they aimed to attract northern factories to relocate to the South, positioning themselves to dominate power production to fuel this expansion. Over time, the Dukes also expanded their investments in textile mills, leveraging the power generated by hydroelectric plants operated by the Southern Power Company.

Southern Power Company's inaugural project was the Great Falls Hydroelectric Plant, located downstream from India Hook Shoals Hydroelectric Plant, now known as the Catawba Hydroelectric Plant. To transport materials and equipment, the company constructed 12 miles of railroad leading to the site. The workforce peaked at 1,000 laborers, with an average of 600 present on-site, working tirelessly day and night to build the dam and powerhouse. The 24,000-kilowatt facility was finalized in April 1907, at a cost just above $1.6 million, which is equivalent to $53.7 million in today's currency.

The expertise gained from the India Hook Shoals Hydroelectric Plant proved advantageous for Southern Power Company's subsequent hydroelectric endeavors. The Great Falls Hydroelectric Station was built more swiftly, and its construction unit cost in current currency was $2,237 per kW, markedly less than the Catawba Hydroelectric Plant's $5,833 per kW.

From 1907 to 1925, the Southern Power Company built eleven hydroelectric plants. Duke Power established an electrical grid that powered the factories and towns across the Piedmont region of North and South Carolina, providing an economic boost to the "New South."

In 1912, Duke Power was reported to have maintained 1,380 miles of transmission lines across roughly 30,000 square miles, supplying electricity to 156 cotton mills, residences in 45 mill towns, various municipal streetlights, and an interurban railway spanning 150 miles. By 1924, it was estimated that textile mills received 80% of Duke Power's electricity, although only 70% of the mills were electrified at the time. Additionally, other industries like tobacco and furniture utilized 10% of the power, while municipal systems used the remaining 10%.

The creation of a grid system linking hydroelectric plants facilitated the balancing of production fluctuations from individual plants, ensuring uninterrupted service and preventing brownouts. However, the reliance on river and lake hydraulics for power generation was challenged by the droughts of the 1920s, prompting Duke Power to reassess its sole reliance on hydroelectricity.

As coal-fueled steam technology advanced in efficiency and cost-effectiveness, Duke Power shifted towards coal-fired steam generation plants. This technology converts liquid water into pressurized steam to rotate turbines, rather than depending on water flow to generate energy.

Duke Power ultimately built eleven lakes totaling 70,715 acres on the Catawba River alone. The banks of the lakes and reservoirs, initially constructed by Duke Power engineers to store water for hydroelectric generation and control flooding, became the sites for coal-fired and later nuclear power plants for the remainder of the 20th century, and the site of the two nuclear power plants that I worked on in 1978.

Duke Power: Owner - Designer - Builder

Duke Power's journey with in-house design started with the India Hook Shoals hydroelectric plant in 1904. By 1924, they started constructing power plants using their own resources. "Today, the engineering and construction team is putting in new work at the rate of over $1 million per day. (Equivalent to $7M today.) This volume ranks among top twelve engineering-construction companies doing business commercially. We feel this do-it-yourself approach has served us well.“ - Carl Horner, Jr., President of Duke Power, May 23, 1973, speech "The Duke Power Story 1904-1973," published by the Newcomen Society.

Upon my arrival in 1978, Duke Power possessed 74 years of expertise in the design, construction, and management of hydroelectric, coal, oil, and nuclear power plants. Today Duke Energy is also invested in solar and wind.

In 1978, Duke Power had one nuclear power plants (3 units) built and online, another 3 plants in construction (7 units), and one planned (3 units).

In Operations in 1978 as Duke Power:

• Oconee Nuclear Station, Units 1-3 - Broke ground in 1967, Unit 1 online in 1973; Units 2 and 3 online in 1974.

Under Construction or Planned by Duke Power in 1978:

• McGuire Nuclear Station, Units 1 & 2 - Broke ground in 1971 (Unit 1 online 1981, Unit 2, online 1984.)
• Catawba Nuclear Station, Units 1& 2 - Broke ground in 1974 (Unit 1 online 1985, Unit 2, online 1986.)
• Cherokee Nuclear Station, Units 1-3 - Broke ground in 1978 (cancelled in 1983.)
• Perkins Nuclear Station Units, 1-3 - In planning, (cancelled in February 1982.)

Following 1978, Duke Power, now known as Duke Energy, expanded its nuclear operations by acquiring Progress Energy Inc.

Caroline Power & Light (Progress Energy Inc.) acquired in 2011:

• H. B. Robinson Nuclear Generating Station, Unit 1 - Broke ground in 1967, online in 1971.
• Brunswick Nuclear Generating Station. Units 1 &2 - Broke ground in 1971, Unit 2 online in 75, and Unit 1 1977.
• (Shearon) Harris Nuclear Plant, Units 1-4 - Broke ground in 1978 (Unit 1 online 1987, the other three units cancelled in 1983.)

Florida Power Corporation (Progress Energy Inc.) merged in 2012:

• Crystal River Nuclear Plant, Units 1 - Broke ground in 1968, online in 1977.

Closing Section Part 3a

This is where I will end section 3a. In the next section 3b. Nuclear Piping 101, I will discuss my field experience during the construction of Duke Power's Catawba Nuclear Station and the McGuire Nuclear Station.

Article Sources:

• The Duke Power Story 1904-1973, published by the Newcomen Society.
• Electrifying the Piedmont Carolinas: The Beginning of the Duke Power Company, 1904-1925: Part 1, Robert F. Durden, Published by North Carolina Office of Archives and History, October 1999.
• Hitching the New South to "White Coal": Water and Power, 1890-1933, Christopher J. Manganiello, Journal of Southern History, May 2012.

• Hydro-Electric Power Development on the Catawba River, Near Rock Hill, S.C., Electrical World and Engineer, July 23, 1904.
• National Register of Historic Placed Assessment for the Catawba-Wateree Hydroelectric Project, FERC Project No. 2232, report by TRC, July 2005.

• Various articles from newspapers to include the Fort Mills Time, Rock Hill Hearld, Yorkville Enquire, Charlotte Observer, and Charolette News.

References for wage data noted in article:

• U.S. Congress's Investigation of Relative to Wages and Proces of Commodities in 1911.
• July 1904: Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Labor, No. 53, Volume IX.
• Hodgson's Modern Estimator and Contractors' Guide for Pricing all Building Work, 1906