Foundations of Modern Pedagogy: Insights from Dewey, Gardner, Piaget, and Vygotsky
Daniel Santangelo, M. Ed
Experienced Educator, Data Driven Leader, and Education Consultant | Out of School Time (OST) Specialist
Education stands as a cornerstone of society, evolving alongside the shifting paradigms of human understanding and societal needs. At its core lies the exploration and application of educational theory, the collective wisdom of scholars who have sought to illuminate the paths of teaching and learning. Within this vast tapestry, the contributions of John Dewey, Howard Gardner, Jean Piaget, and Lev Vygotsky emerge as guiding stars, illuminating the contours of modern pedagogy. Here I'll explore the basic points of their theories and continue to inform and enrich educational practices worldwide.
John Dewey: General Theory of Education
“If we are willing to conceive education as the process of forming fundamental dispositions, intellectual and emotional, toward nature and fellow men, philosophy may even be defined as?the general theory of education.”??– John Dewey
John Dewey was trained as a philosopher and functional psychologist. After spending time researching child psychology, Dewey began to research and create his own philosophy on education commonly known as his, “General Theory of Education.” In this theory, Dewey argues that education would best serve students by emphasizing and accepting change rather than rejecting it. He viewed the job of education as creating citizens more equipped to live in a democracy by linking their education to their lived experience. To do this his theory emphasized cooperation and experimental learning and laid the ground work for what is today considered the progressive reform movement in schools. (Paul, 2017)
From Dewey’s point of view, it was not the student that needed to be reformed, but the way that educators were approaching education itself. In How We Think Dewey claimed, “The native and unspoiled attitude of childhood, marked by ardent curiosity, fertile imagination, and love of experimental inquiry, is near, very near, to the attitude of the scientific mind.” (HWT, 179) This shows that Dewey recognized a child’s natural ability to learn and natural inclination towards curiosity that lends itself to learning. This led to Dewey believing that teachers needed to be more aware of their students' cultural and personal backgrounds. He argued that if a teacher could identify specific qualities of a child’s life and connect them to the material, it would help to bridge the gap between curriculum and student and create an incentive learning environment where students believe that what they are learning is relevant to their own lives.
Mixing the ideas of student engagement and encouraging natural creativity, Dewey’s research created the foundation of Project/Problem Based Learning (PBL). While this approach does require more effort on the educator’s behalf the results tend to show that students involved in this type of learning environment are more engaged. Research also shows that the more engaged a learner is the better they tend to perform as opposed to those that are not engaged.
Personal and meaningful relationships between student and teacher also have been shown to improve student learning. When discussing Dewey’s works John Saltmarsh reflected that, “facilitating problem-posing education as a model for a dialogic search for knowledge; students become self-directed and reflective learners; and teacher and student engage in a relationship of reciprocity where both are equally committed to creating a context for learning.” These ideas of self-direction, awareness, management, decision making, and relationship building are all aspects of what can be called Social Emotional Learning (SEL). Although Dewey may not have intended it at the time, the practice of SEL that is encompassed through many of his findings is at the heart of modern best practices for education.
Howard Gardner: Theory of Multiple Intelligence
“The biggest mistake of past centuries in teaching has been to treat all students as if they were variants of the same individual and thus to feel justified in teaching them all the same subjects the same way.” – Howard Gardner?
What is intelligence? There is no one answer to that question and in the last 100 years alone there have been at least 17 (presumably many more) contested definitions given by many renowned psychologists. (Satler, 223) This is because there is no one way to define what exactly intelligence is. In his original 1983’s theory of multiple intelligences, Howard Gardner proposed that there were six types of intelligence and that, “human beings have a number of relatively discrete intellectual capacities.” (Gardner, 1983) Today, this number has increased to the following nine:
This view of intelligence suggests that although students may not excel in one area, they could be very strong in another. Rather than emphasizing a student’s weaknesses, those who implement strategies influenced by multiple intelligences encourage student’s strengths. Education researcher Hani Morgan explained this as, “Where individuals differ is in the strength of these intelligences and the ways in which such intelligences are invoked and combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems and progress in various domains.”?(Morgan , 2014)
By recognizing the, “ways in which such intelligences are invoked,” educators can begin to group students more strongly in terms of collaborative learning. If, for example, the assignment is for students to create a template for an ecosystem in science class and a teacher could pin point students with naturalist, special, interpersonal, and verbal intelligences they could create groups that benefited the highest percentage of students with minimal intervention.?
Although each of these students brings their own individual capacity for learning to the table, emphasizing their own unique “intelligences” through project based and cooperative learning has been shown to increase outcomes. An international study by Bas and Beyhan in 2010 showed that, “MI-based learning is more effective in terms of student achievement levels and their attitudes toward learning.” (Bas and Beyhan, 2010) While this study did focus on English students, this theory can be applied across subjects.?
As administrators it is important, “to take notice of new techniques that can be successful based on the research of Howard Gardner and the other researchers who have followed.” (Cornerstone, 2018) Further research, such as that done by Bas and Beyhan, verifies that a consideration of MI techniques is beneficial to students and should be implemented into curriculums. Knowing what are considered to be “best practices” and techniques to implement is a crucial role of administration in schools so that the administrator may act as a guide any staff trying to implement these techniques in their room.?
Jean Piaget: Constructivism and Cognitive Development?
“Every time we teach a child something, we keep him from inventing it himself. On the other hand that which we allow him to discover by himself will remain with him visibly for the rest of his life.”-Jean Piaget?
Jean Piaget was a psychologist largely known for his work on the cognitive development of children. He developed the, “”4 Stages of Cognitive Development,” and also came to believe in Constructivism. Constructivism in this sense is defined as a thought that is, “actively constructed by learners based on their existing cognitive structures.” This idea of Constructivism ties directly into Piaget’s four stages of cognitive development due to the fact that, “he proposed that learning is a dynamic process comprising successive stages of adaption to reality during which learners actively construct knowledge by creating and testing their own theories of the world” (Berkley) These stages were:
Piaget’s research only focused on children rather than all learners and was developed as a broad model rather than one that focused on the individual learner. He believed that over time, children would view and understand the world around them through curiosity and this understanding would evolve at certain times depending on which stage they were on. Piaget also theorized that not all children were guaranteed through each stage, which would explain differentiated learning levels. Children would build off of their lived experience from the prior stage in a process of equilibration, experiencing a new situation, disequilibrium, accommodation, and assimilation.?
To Piaget, this evolution of child thought meant that educators should be assessing children on their ability to think critically rather than gauging their progress off of true or false answers. In 1966, this belief largely influenced a report of the Central Advisory Council for Education in England commonly known as the Plowden Report. It is stated in the report that, “Individual differences between children of the same age are so great that any class, however homogeneous it seems, must always be treated as a body of children needing individual and different attention.” (Plowden, 1966)?While the report does mention that there are still many unknowns about the emotional and intellectual development of children, it does take into account the Piagetian theory that not all children are at the same cognitive level at a specific age or time in their life.?
Since the publication of the Plowden report, and since Piaget completed his own research, more studies have been conducted and there has been a general shift away from Piaget’s theories. However, this doesn’t mean that all aspects of his work can be discredited. Since Piaget’s work emphasized that children all learn at different levels and gave way to the evolution of differentiated learning, recognizing that some students may need modified lessons in order to grasp the material being taught.?
This emphasis on the individual student is also apparent in Piaget’s work when he draws attention to the fact that student learning compounds on the lived experiences of the student. Similar to Dewey’s work, this draws attention to the need for individualized curriculum that engages the student. If a teacher or administrator is able to create a curriculum that engages students, they are more likely to learn successfully.
Lev Vygotsky: Zones of Proximal Development (ZPD)
“The teacher should play the role of facilitator, not of a provider of content.”- Lev Vygotsky
领英推荐
Lev Vygotsky was a psychologist best known for his work on Zones of Proximal Development, which he defines as, "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers" (Vygotsky, 1978) Vygotsky believed that there were three zones when considering ability and learning. These zones helped to classify what a learner could do independently (Zone of Achieved Development), what they could do with assistance/guidance (Zone of Optimal Development), and what they could not do.?
According to Vygotsky’s work, education and learning are both highly influenced by social factors. This is why he recommends that children learn from one another whenever possible rather than by being taught directly by the teacher. To Vygotsky, the role of the teacher should be as a facilitator of student learning rather than dictate what children should be learning directly to them. Much like some of the work done by Piaget, Vygotsky’s work lends itself well to the ideas of both cooperative and differentiated learning.
Cooperative Learning allows students to learn from one another by working to develop a collaborative solution to an issue that they are presented with. As an educator, it is important to be mindful when grouping students that are in a specific zone of proximal development with another student who may be able to assist them in their learning. This poses no detriment to the student who is “assisting” while also benefiting the student who is in the ZPD. The “assisting” or “guiding” student is still able to work on critical 21st century skills such as collaboration, problem solving, and critical thinking while also showing their understanding of the content. The “assisted” student that is in the ZPD also works on these skills while gaining further understanding of the content from a peer.
Differentiated Learning is also important to consider when applying Vygotsky’s work. A student that is in a ZPD may need more than peer guidance to grasp the content being provided to them. It is the role of the instructor to assess that need and determine what modifications need to be made in order for specific students to reach the desired level of comprehension. This is commonly called “scaffolding.” Scaffolding may be taking extra time to review keywords before an assignment, reviewing old skills that may be relevant to the current lesson, or any manipulations/extra steps taken before the lesson is taught. Scaffolding also helps to increase student learning as they continue on into new zones of proximal development because they build off of material that was learned in the last.?
As an administrator or classroom teacher, it is important to implement continued assessment that allows for the application of methods influenced by Vygotsky’s work to take place. By asking instructors to implement formative assessments into their curriculum and lesson plans, student progress can be frequently monitored. This allows for proper grouping when making groups for cooperative learning and the implementation of necessary modifications when using differentiated learning.?
Conclusion?
As we navigate the complexities of education in the 21st century, the insights of Dewey, Gardner, Piaget, and Vygotsky serve as guiding beacons. Their theories underscore the importance of embracing change, recognizing diverse forms of intelligence, promoting critical thinking, and fostering collaborative learning environments. By integrating their wisdom into educational practices, we can empower learners to navigate an ever-changing world with confidence and competence.
References
Central Advisory Council for Education (1967)?Children and their Primary Schools?(‘The Plowden Report’), London: HMSO
“Cognitive Constructivism.”?GSI Teaching Resource Center, gsi.berkeley.edu/gsi-guide-contents/learning-theory-research/cognitive-constructivism/ .?
Gillard, Derek.?Plowden Report (1967) Volume 1, www.educationengland.org.uk/documents/plowden/plowden1967-1.html .?
Hani Morgan?(2014)?Maximizing Student Success with Differentiated Learning,?The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas,?87:1,?34-38,?DOI:?10.1080/00098655.2013.832130
Hildebrand, David. “John Dewey.”?Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford University, 1 Nov. 2018, plato.stanford.edu/entries/dewey/ .?
“Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences - NIU - Center for Innovative Teaching and Learning.”?Northern Illinois University, www.niu.edu/citl/resources/guides/instructional-guide/gardners-theory-of-multiple-intelligences.shtml .?
Jennifer Knestrick November, 27. “The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and Why It Matters for Early Childhood Learning.”?Teach. Learn. Grow., 22 Oct. 2020, www.nwea.org/blog/2012/the-zone-of-proximal-development-zpd-and-why-it-matters-for-early-childhood-learning/ .?
Kurt, Serhat. “Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding.”?Educational Technology, 18 Aug. 2020, educationaltechnology.net/vygotskys-zone-of-proximal-development-and-scaffolding/ .?
McLeod, S. A. (2019). What Is the zone of proximal development?. Simply psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/Zone-of-Proximal-Development.html
Paul, C. A. (2017). Dewey, John (1859 – 1952): Educator, social reformer, philosopher.?Social Welfare History Project. Retrieved from https://socialwelfare.library.vcu.edu/programs/education/dewey-john-1859-…rmer-philosopher/ ?
Piaget, Jean (1968).?Six Psychological Studies. Anita Tenzer (Trans.), New York: Vintage Books.
Saltmarsh John. (Fall 1996, pp 13-21). Education for Critical Citizenship: John Dewey’s Contribution to the Pedagogy of Community Service Learning. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning. Retrieved from https://quod.lib.umich.edu/m/mjcsl/3239521.0003.102/1 ?
The Mathematics Educator Applying Piaget’s Theory ... - ERIC. files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ841568.pdf .?
“The Plowden Report.”?Infedorg, 20 June 2019, infed.org/the-plowden-report/ .?
?“What Are Multiple Intelligences and How Do They Affect Learning?”?Cornerstone University, 3 Sept. 2020, www.cornerstone.edu/blog-post/what-are-multiple-intelligences-and-how-do-they-affect-learning/ .?