FOCUS ON DISCOVERY LEARNING!!!

Discovery learning is an inquiry-based, constructivist learning theory that takes place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past experience and existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned.

Discovery Learning (Bruner)Jerome Bruner (1915 – )

Discovery Learning is a method of inquiry-based instruction, discovery learning believes that it is best for learners to discover facts and relationships for themselves.

Key Concepts

Discovery learning is an inquiry-based, constructive learning theory that takes place in problem solving situations where the learner draws on his or her own past experience and existing knowledge to discover facts and relationships and new truths to be learned[1]. Students interact with the world by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions and controversies, or performing experiments.

As a result, students may be more more likely to remember concepts and knowledge discovered on their own (in contrast to a transmissionist model)[2]. Models that are based upon discovery learning model include: guided discovery, problem-based learning, simulation-based learning, case-based learning, incidental learning, among others.

The theory is closely related to work by Jean Piaget and Seymour Papert.

Proponents of this theory believe that discovery learning:

• encourages active engagement
• promotes motivation
• promotes autonomy, responsibility, independence
• develops creativity and problem solving skills.
• tailors learning experiences

Critics believe that discovery learning:

• creates cognitive overload
• may result in potential misconceptions
• makes it difficult for teachers to detect problems and misconceptions

EcoChains: A Food Web Game to Teach Climate Change

Social science research shows that teaching climate change in way that emphasizes "doom and gloom" and scary facts does not motivate people to engage in the issue, and often leads to feelings of helplessness, fear, or guilt (CUSP, 2017). Facts alone are often not enough to get people to learn or care about the issue.

Social science research shows that teaching climate change in way that emphasizes “doom and gloom” and scary facts does not motivate people to engage in the issue, and often leads to feelings of helplessness, fear, or guilt (CUSP, 2017). Facts alone are often not enough to get people to learn or care about the issue.The Need for New Ways to Teach Climate Change

Can a game be an effective way to get a person to develop empathy, learn about, or shift attitudes through a firsthand experience? A review of interactive media tools by published in Nature Climate Change journal found that games can be a promising approach to teach, persuade or change attitudes on the climate change and caring for the environment.

EcoChains: A Food Web Game to Teach Climate Change

EcoChains is a food web card game to teach climate change. Developed by Joey Lee (game designer and educational technology professor at Columbia University) and Stephanie Pfirman (environmental science professor at Barnard College), the game is meant to be fun and work both in classrooms and at home for game night.

EcoChains: Arctic Life is a simple two player game that involves 3 main steps:

1. Build food chains by connecting Arctic species cards at the corners — predators eat prey. For example, polar bear can eat ringed seals.
2. Ensure animals have enough sea ice at the base of their food chains to survive. Polar bears, for instance, need 3 sea ice cards at the bottom of their food chain.
3. Carbon pollution events melt sea ice, which sometimes causes migration and death. These cards randomly come out as events which affect all players.

Andragogy – Adult Learning Theory (Knowles)

Summary: Summary: Andragogy refers to a theory of adult learning that details some of the ways in which adults learn differently than children. For example, adults tend to be more self-directed, internally motivated, and ready to learn. Teachers can draw on concepts of andragogy to increase the effectiveness of their adult education classes.

Originator: Malcom Shepherd Knowles (1913-1997)

Keywords: learning, learning theory, adults, education, self-directive, self-concept, experiences, readiness, motivation, content, process, practical learning

Andragogy (Adult Learning Theory)

Andragogy, also known as adult learning theory, was proposed by Malcom Shepard Knowles in 1968.[i] Previously, much research and attention had been given to the concept of pedagogy – teaching children. Knowles recognized that there are many differences in the ways that adults learn as opposed to children. His thoughts surrounding andragogy sought to capitalize on the unique learning styles and strengths of adult learners.

Knowles’ Five Assumptions of Adult Learners

Knowles theory of andragogy identified five assumptions that teachers should make about adult learners.

1. Self-Concept – Because adults are at a mature developmental stage, they have a more secure self-concept than children. This allows them to take part in directing their own learning.
2. Past Learning Experience – Adults have a vast array of experiences to draw on as they learn, as opposed to children who are in the process of gaining new experiences.
3. Readiness to Learn – Many adults have reached a point in which they see the value of education and are ready to be serious about and focused on learning.
4. Practical Reasons to Learn – Adults are looking for practical, problem-centered approaches to learning. Many adults return to continuing education for specific practical reasons, such as entering a new field.
5. Driven by Internal Motivation – While many children are driven by external motivators – such as punishment if they get bad grades or rewards if they get good grades – adults are more internally motivated.

Four Principles of Andragogy

Based on these assumptions about adult learners, Knowles discussed four principles that educators should consider when teaching adults.

1. Since adults are self-directed, they should have a say in the content and process of their learning.
2. Because adults have so much experience to draw from, their learning should focus on adding to what they have already learned in the past.
3. Since adults are looking for practical learning, content should focus on issues related to their work or personal life.
4. Additionally, learning should be centered on solving problems instead of memorizing content.

Current Applications 

In later years, Knowles would recognize that some points in his theory did not apply to all adults. In addition, some of what he wrote about education could also apply to children. He began to see learning on a spectrum between teacher-directed and student-directed. In his later work, he emphasized how each situation should be assessed on an individual basis to determine how much self-direction would be helpful for students.

Andragogy has received critique over the years, as some of its assumptions have not been empirically proven.[ii] However, many researchers believe that the self-directed approach to learning discussed by Knowles is applicable in a number of settings.

For example, online learning can benefit from Knowle’s discussion of self-directive learning, as students often receive less supervision from teachers in an online environment.

Other researchers have used androgagy to consider how lectures can become more effective modes of learning through more actively engaging adult students. For example, teachers can use Socratic dialogue, small group discussions, and student-led teaching to make lectures more self-directive and engaging.

SWOT Analysis Tool

Summary: SWOT is an acronym that stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. A SWOT analysis is a tool or technique that can be used in business, design or personal settings to evaluate a project or company and to create constructive goals and strategies.Originators: George Albert Smith Jr., Kenneth Andrews, Albert S. Humphrey (1927-2005)

Keywords: decision making, goals, strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats, strategy tool, management, business, external issues, internal issues, growth, performance

Overview

The exact origin of SWOT Analysis has been debated.[i] Some people believe that it originated in the 1950s at Harvard Business School and was the work of professors George Albert Smith Jr and Kenneth Andrews. Others believe it was created by Albert S. Humphrey in the 1960s during his time at the Stanford Research Institute. Regardless of its origins, SWOT analysis has become quite popular, and may be one of the most widely used management decision-making tools among business managers.

SWOT Analysis gathers data about internal issues within a company or project – strengths and weakness – and external issues outside of the company or project – opportunities and threats. It then analyzes this data to inform future goals, decisions, and strategies. The ultimate goal of SWOT analysis is to achieve a more successful outcome; for a company, the goal may be to improve performance and enhance growth.

Application of SWOT Analysis

One of the most appealing feature of SWOT analysis is its universal applicability. SWOT analysis can hypothetically be used by any type of organization as a decision-making tool. It can also be used by individuals for similar purposes. Consider the following examples.

EdTech designers – As a project is created, SWOT analysis can identify factors that lead to the eventual success of the project, while also considering risks and areas that need improvement.

Small and medium companies – SWOT analysis of small and medium companies can consist of formulating, implementing, and evaluating strategies that lead to improvements in productivity, performance, and successful operation of the company.[ii]

Farming and agricultural development – Researchers have shown the use of SWOT Analysis in the context of farming and agricultural development in Iran.[iii]

Private schools – SWOT analysis was used in an attempt to improve two different private schools. The researchers stated that the analysis benefited one of the schools by allowing it to “advance in the face of growing challenges thereby leading to its stability and increased productivity.”[iv]

Nursing policy – Researchers have used SWOT analysis to consider the nursing policies of multiple European countries. Their analysis allowed them to identify factors that prevented collaboration between countries.

Transformative Learning Theory (Mezirow)

Summary: Transformative learning is a theory of adult learning that utilizes disorienting dilemmas to challenge students’ thinking. Students are then encouraged to use critical thinking and questioning to consider if their underlying assumptions and beliefs about the world are accurate. Originator: Jack Mezirow (1923-2014)

Keywords: adult education, higher education, academic development, disorienting dilemmas, assumptions, beliefs, worldview, change, transformation, critical reflection

Transformative learning theory was developed by Jack Mezirow in the late 1900s. He used this theory to describe how people develop and use critical self-reflecting to consider their beliefs and experiences, and over time, change dysfunctional means of seeing the world. Mezirow was interested in peoples’ worldviews and what leads people to change their particular view of the world.[i]

Mezirow describes transformative learning as “learning that transforms problematic frames of reference to make them more inclusive, discriminating, reflective, open, and emotionally able to change.”[ii]

So, what must happen for a person to change their view of the world? Mezirow believed that this occurs when people face a “disorienting dilemma.” Disorienting dilemmas are experiences that don’t fit into a person’s current beliefs about the world. When faced with a disorienting dilemma, people are forced to reconsider their beliefs in a way that will fit this new experience into the rest of their worldview. This often happens through “critical reflection” in the context of dialogue with other people.[iii]

A Case Study

Researcher Michael Christie presents the following case study as a real life example of transformative learning theory in action. Christie describes his experience teaching adult woman in a Graduate Diploma course for Adult and Vocational Educators. Throughout the course, he asked his students to “keep a critical incident file of their experiences.”

The content of the course provided many new ideas that functioned as disorienting dilemmas for these woman. The woman were forced to think through their assumptions in a number of areas, including beliefs about gender roles. Christie states, “For example, the belief that ‘a woman’s place is in the home’ was undermined, the assumptions underpinning it challenged, and a new perspective enacted.”

Applications of Transformative Learning Theory

Disorienting dilemmas often occur in the context of academic learning environments, as teachers provide space to critically engage with new ideas. Teachers who want to utilize transformative learning in their classrooms can consider implementing the following opportunities for students.

• Providing opportunities for critical thinking – Teachers can create opportunities for critical thinking through providing content that introduces new ideas. Students then need the opportunity to engage with new content through journaling, dialoguing with other students, and critically questioning their own assumptions and beliefs.
• Providing opportunities to relate to others going through the same transformative process – Transformation often happens in community as students bounce ideas off one another and are inspired by the changes friends and acquaintances make.
• Providing opportunities to act on new perspectives – Finally, research indicates that it is critical for teachers to provide the opportunity for students to act on their new found beliefs. There is some indication that true transformation cannot take place until students are able to actively take steps that acknowledge their new belief.

Stereotype Threat (Steele, Aronson)

Summary: Stereotype threat occurs when people are at risk for living up to a negative stereotype about their group. For example, a woman may fail to reach her career goal of being a scientist because of how she changes her behavior in response to perceptions about her own gender.Originators: Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson

Keywords: stereotypes, vulnerability, self-defeating behavior, performance, gender, race, intelligence

Stereotype threat is a term that was created by social scientists Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson. They completed an important early study in 1995 which defined stereotype threat as “being at risk of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one’s group.”[i]

In this study, Steele and Aronson observed the performance of Black and White students on academic tests. Steele and Aronson created the study in response to a negative stereotype about Black students which pervades culture – Black students are portrayed as less intelligent and less competent than White students. Because of this stereotype, Steele and Aronson wondered if Black students would “protectively dis-identify with achievement in school and related intellectual domains.” This desire to disengage from intellectual pursuits could possible lead Black students to live up to their negative stereotype.

The results of the study confirmed the researcher’s suspicion. When test instructors emphasized the role of race before the test, Black students performed worse than White students. When instructors did not emphasize race, Black and White students performed equally well.

In essence, stereotype threat occurs when people fear that they will live up to a negative stereotype about their group. In response to their fear, they participate in disengaging and self-defeating behaviors that ironically cause them to live up to the feared stereotype.

Stereotype Threat Impacts Peoples’ Behavior

Stereotype threat has been shown to impact peoples’ behavior in the following ways.[ii]

• Reduced effort – People who fear they might live up to a stereotype sometimes reduce their effort so they can have an excuse if they fall into that stereotype. For example, people may not prepare for a test so they have an excuse when they do poorly.
• Disengaging – People who are stereotypically not good at something (such as woman in mathematics) will often disengage from that field or area.
• Changing aspirations and career goals – Some people go as far as to change their life aspirations and career goals in response to stereotype threat.

How to Reduce Stereotype Threat

Stereotype threat has been studied extensively, with a heavy emphasis on how to reduce this phenomenon in various populations. Research shows that the following strategies can be effective. Many of these are practical strategies that can be carried out in classrooms and other settings.

• Providing role models. People who observe role models from their group engaging in certain fields and activities are more likely to think they can do the same thing. One study showed that woman who read about other woman who had succeeded in fields of architecture, law, medicine, and intervention performed better on a mathematics test than those who didn’t.[iii]
• Encouraging self-affirmation – One study showed that having African students engage in a self-affirming journal exercise before the start of a semester closed the racial achievement gap by 40%.[iv]
• Emphasizing motivation and effort – African American students who were taught that intelligence is “a malleable rather than fixed capacity” that can be increased through motivation and effort received better grades than those who were not taught this.[v]

Although stereotype threat is a significant concern for many vulnerable groups of people, research consistently shows that the effects of stereotype threat can be reduced through following strategies such as these.[v]

Over three hundred studies have investigated stereotype threat in a wide variety of areas.

Chaos Theory

Summary: Chaos theory is a mathematical theory that can be used to explain complex systems such as weather, astronomy, politics, and economics. Although many complex systems appear to behave in a random manner, chaos theory shows that, in reality, there is an underlying order that is difficult to see.Originators: Henri Poincaré (1854-1912), Edward Lorenz (1917-2008)

Keywords: order, chaos, complex systems, determinism, butterfly effect, sensitive dependence on initial conditions, nonlinear dynamics, chaos dynamics

Many complex systems can be better understood through the lens of Chaos Theory. Henri Poincaré, a mathematician, laid the groundwork for Chaos Theory.[i] He was the first to point out that many deterministic systems display a “sensitive dependence on initial conditions.” Poincaré described this concept in the following way: “It may happen that small differences in the initial conditions produce very great ones in the final phenomena. A small error in the former will produce an enormous error in the latter. Prediction becomes impossible.”

For example, Poincaré pointed out that the apparent lack of order seen in many astronomical systems was actually not random or chaotic. Instead, astronomers were just not seeing the small changes in initial conditions that were leading to humongous differences in the final phenomena that were being observed.

Later, in the 1900s, Edward Lorenz officially coined the term Chaos Theory. Lorenz studied Chaos Theory in the context of weather systems. When making weather predictions, he noticed that his calculations were significantly impacted by the extent to which he rounded his numbers. The end result of the calculation was significantly different when he used a number rounded to three digits as compared to a number rounded to six digits.

His observations on Chaos Theory in weather systems led to his famous talk, which he entitled, “Predictability: Does the Flap of a Butterfly’s Wings in Brazil set off a Tornado in Texas?” In reference to this talk, Chaos Theory has also been described as the “butterfly effect.”

Application of Chaos Theory 

Chaos theory has a lot to teach people about decision making in complex environments. The mathematical concepts used to understand physical systems are now being applied to social environments such as politics, economics, business, and other social sciences.[ii]

Although applying Chaos Theory to business settings is still in its infancy, social scientists describe the following applications as useful when making business decisions.[iii]

• Chaos theory suggests that spending a lot of time trying to predict the future of complex, non-linear systems may be better spent elsewhere. Instead of trying to predict long-term future outcomes, businesses should consider and plan for multiple possible outcomes.
• Chaos theory reminds business owners that small changes in business practice can lead to huge changes in future outcomes based on the concept of sensitive dependence on initial conditions. Some business managers underestimate the possibility for large unexpected changes, and should reconsider their mindset on this matter.
• Chaos theory assumes that there is order behind seemingly random events. Even though businesses may not be helped by making long-term future predictions, they can make short-term forecasts to help with business decisions.
• Because of the complexity and unpredictability inherent in complex systems, businesses need clear guidelines for employees to follow. However, since sudden and drastic changes are bound to occur, business owners should be ready to adapt these guidelines as necessary.

Social Proof

Summary: Social proof describes a psychological phenomenon in which people mirror the actions and opinions of others. In other words, people’s decisions are often impacted by the preferences and modeling of individuals or groups around them.Keywords: informational social influence, marketing, group norms, standards of behavior, testimonials, crowds, social modeling, sales, business, conformity, group conformity, social media

Originator: Muzafer Sheraf (1906-1988)

 Social proof was first described in scientific research by a psychologist named Muzafer Sheraf. Sheraf was interested in the impact of groups on individual decision making. In relation to this interest, he completed a famous experiment on group conformity in 1936.[i]

In this study, Sheraf asked participants to observe a blinking light. A blinking light in a dark room often appears to move, even when it remains still. Based on this common perception, Sheraf asked participants to indicate how many inches they thought the blinking light moved. Sheraf first asked participants to guess an answer when they were alone. Then, he asked them the same question again while they were surrounded by a group of other participants. Sheraf found that participants changed their initial answers once they moved to the group setting. Across the board, people changed their number to closer reflect what other group members had guessed.

The concept of social proof came out of studies such as this one. Researchers consistently observe a tendency for individuals to move towards group conformity. Individuals often change their behaviors, opinions, and decisions to match the people around them.

 Using Social Proof to Influence People

Social proof is commonly used in marketing and social media to influence people to buy products. Listed below are a variety of different types of social proof that are used in the context of marketing.[ii]

Social proof uses the influence of social media friends. For example, a business might indicate how many of a person’s Facebook friends “liked” a particular product they sell. People are more influenced to buy something when they know that their friends like the product.

• Social proof uses the influence of celebrities. Research shows that people are more likely to buy a product when it is endorsed by a familiar and well-liked celebrity.
• Social proof uses the influence of professional certifications and testimonials. Experts in an area may be called upon to endorse a product or provide a testimonial of how they have enjoyed a product.
• Social proof uses the influence of crowds. Sometimes businesses indicate the number of people who have bought a product. When people know that a product or service is popular, they are more likely to want to buy it.

 Social Proof and Personal Decisions

Social proof is a great marketing strategy and an effective means of influencing people to make certain choices. However, individuals should consider if social proof is always the best way to make decisions.

Quite notably, Sharif’s original study indicated that people were not aware of the extent to which they were impacted by the group. When participants where asked if they thought they were influenced by the group, most of them believed they had not been influenced. However, it was clear from the results of the study that people were wrong to believe this.

Negative forms of social proof can lead to bad decision making and giving into peer pressure. A prime example of this is college students who abuse alcohol and drugs.[iii] Research has drawn connections between social proof and this common dangerous behavior in college students. On a college campus, so many people engage in substance abuse that this behavior is observed to be the norm. Incoming students are apt to conform with the group and begin abusing substances just like the older students around them.

It is not always wrong to make decisions based on social proof. However, Sharif’s study provides an important caution that people should develop self-awareness surrounding this topic, so they can know when their decisions are being influenced by the people around them.

Network Effects

Summary: Network Effects describes the phenomenon how the value of a good or service increases as more people start to use that good or service.Originators: Theodore Vail (1845-1920), Robert Metcalfe (1946-Present)

Keywords: network externality, demand-side economies of scale, marketing, customer base, value, monopoly, social media, congestion, good, service

Certain products only have value if a large number of people are using them. A classic example is that of technology used for communication such as a phone or fax machine. Critical mass is needed — these devices are only valuable if lots of other people have phones that you can call and machines you can fax.

This phenomenon was first described by Theodore Vail in 1908. Vail used the concept of Network Effects to build AT&T into a monopoly of telephone communication in the early 1900s. Later, Robert Metcalfe described Network Effects related to the importance of more people engaging in use of the Internet for it to become beneficial to everyone.[i]

Both the Internet and the telephone are examples of Direct Network Effects, in which more customers directly increase the value of a product or service. There are also Indirect Network Effects, which occur when more customers indirectly increase the value of a product of service. For example, when more people use Uber, this does not directly make Uber more valuable. However, the more people who use Uber, the more Uber is motivated to improve the quality of their service, which ends up indirectly impacting the value of this service.[ii]

Another prime example of Network Effects can be found in various social media services, such as Facebook. The more people who use Facebook, the more valuable Facebook becomes. This in turn, attracts more people to Facebook, as people do not want to miss out on a service that so many other people are using. Thus, Facebook continues to increase in value and attract more people at the same time.

Using Network Effects to Improve Businesses

Businesses who succeed at utilizing Network Effects can gain a competitive advantage in their industry. Consider two ways in which this can happen:

1. Businesses can harness the power of Network Effects through engaging with products that are already highly valuable. They can consider what products are being used by a large number of people and consider utilizing those products within their business.

For example, Visa is a type of credit card used by over 2.9 billion people. Businesses can make a point to accept Visa credit cards and gain more customers who might have gone elsewhere if the business only accepted cash.

Businesses can harness the power of social media through advertising via various media platforms that are already popular and attract large numbers of people.  

1. Businesses can create network effects within their own products and services through encouraging high engagement, interacting with customers, and providing high quality products.

The reason many social media platforms developed high network effects is because they are engaging and interactive. This is a means of drawing new customers in and building up a client base to build value within the business.

Once people engage with a product or service, businesses can focus on keeping products and services as high quality as possible. This keeps people engaged in the long run.

Prisoner’s Dilemma

Summary: The Prisoner’s Dilemma is a hypothetical scenario which illustrates the difficulty of deciding whether to cooperate or compete with other people. Understanding the costs and benefits of cooperating and competing is applicable to various fields including business, economics, and politics.Originators: Merrill Flood (1908-1991, Melvin Dresher (1911-1992), Albert William Tucker (1905-1995)

Keywords: game theory, cooperation, competition, problem-solving, strategy, consequences, cooperation level, individual behavior, evolutionary game theory, mutual cooperation

The Prisoner’s Dilemma is a scenario that was created to describe concepts behind game theory.[i] Game theory is the study of how and why people cooperate or compete with one another. The Prisoner’s Dilemma was originally created by two scientists named Merrill Flood and Melvin Dresher. In later years, professor Albert William Tucker developed the Prisoner’s Dilemma further, using it as a teaching tool for his graduate psychology students.

Here’s the scenario: Two friends – let’s call them Jim and Matt – have been convicted of a crime. The police bring Jim and Matt in for questioning and place them in separate rooms. Each of them has two options. They can confess to the crime, or remain silent regarding the crime. Matt and Jim are both told that the option they choose will affect them personally and affect their friend in the following ways.

• If they both choose to remain silent, each will receive only 1 year in prison.
• Another option is for both of them to confess. If this happens, they each get two years in prison.
• The final option is for one of them to confess and the other to remain silent. If Matt confesses and Jim remains silent, Jim will get three years in prison and Matt will go free. And vice versa.

What should each of them do? Consider this scenario from Matt’s perspective.

Is it best for Matt to cooperate by remaining silent? In some ways, this is the riskier choice. There is no chance for him to go free. He will either serve one year with Jim or three years alone. But Matt may care about Jim and want to consider his well-being as well. Remaining silent could lead to the best case scenario for both of them together.

Or, is it best for Matt to compete by confessing to the crime. In some ways, this is the safest choice. Matt could go free. And he avoids any chance of the longest possible sentence of three years. But it would also be a decision made out of self-interest, and Matt may want to consider if only his interest is important to him.

Cooperating or Competing

Is it better to cooperate or compete? This is the main question behind The Prisoner’s Dilemma.

This question, as illustrated in the scenario, is highly applicable to a number of fields such as business, economics, and politics.

The Prisoner’s Dilemma is a reminder that cooperation is not always best.[ii] Immediately cooperating can lead to consequences if the other party is only thinking about personal self-interest. For example, when it comes to salary negotiations, it is not always in a person’s best interest to take the first salary offered. Sometimes it is better to push for a higher salary, even though this might not work out. Another example would be pricing a product. Often it is better for businesses to compete with one another by lowering prices. Lowering prices can lead to higher profit margins than if a business cooperated and priced similarly to other businesses in the area.

On the other hand, The Prisoner’s Dilemma also illustrates that it isn’t always best to look out for one’s self-interest only. When businesses show mutual cooperation, it can lead to increased profit for both of them. Businesses sometimes form mutually beneficial strategic partnerships, such as when Starbucks coffee is sold in Barnes and Noble bookstores. Mutual cooperation is also an important strategy in politics. For example, mutual cooperation between countries may be risky and require compromise; however, it can also be a means of keeping peace and enhancing trade.

Backward Design

Summary: Backward Design is a model for designing instructional materials where the instructor or designer begins the design process with a focus on the desired results (i.e., the outcome) of instruction.Originator / Contributors: Grant Wiggins and Jay McTighe

Keywords:  Outcomes, Evidence, Experiences, Instruction, Backward Design, Wiggins, McTighe

Backward Design can be summarized as a process or model for designing instructional materials where the instructor or instructional designer focuses on the desired end results (i.e., the outcome) of a class or course instruction. Rather than beginning the planning process with a focus on supporting exercises, resources or long-used textbooks, the designer focuses on the learners and begins the design process by asking what learners should be able to understand and do after the provided instruction. The designer then identifies what types of evidence are sufficient proof of the desired end result. The designer works “backwards” from that end goal and intentionally plans and develops supporting instruction and learning experiences around the desired outcomes and evidence[1].

Backward Design can be summarized in a three-step process:

1: Identify Desired Outcomes: Articulate what learners should be able to understand and do after provided instruction.

2: Identify Acceptable Evidence: Determine what types of assessments and measures would clarify (or serve as evidence of) when and whether students can perform the desired outcome.

3: Plan Learning Experiences and Instruction: Develop exercises, materials and instruction around the desired outcomes and evidence.

By way of example, consider a paralegal instructor who wants students, as a result of her instruction, to be able to prepare case briefs. She could begin a class by sharing a summary of cases she finds fascinating and then spend time discussing the cases with students. However, this might not be the preferred use of instructional time when the goal is helping students understand how to produce a case brief and why being able to do so matters.

With Backward Design’s focus on the desired result (for example, preparing a clear, well-written case brief), instruction can be tailored to support this desired product. Backward Design focuses on essential questions (for example, the value of case briefs, how to read and understand a legal opinion, application of case briefing in professional contexts) such that students develop a deeper appreciation for the practical relevance of their work.

Following the Backward Design three-step process:

1: Desired Outcomes: Students should be able to prepare a written case brief after reading a judicial opinion.

2: Acceptable Evidence: A marked up judicial opinion and a supporting written case brief that follows a standard, professional format.

3: Plan Learning Experiences and Instruction: The instructor might model note-taking when reading a judicial opinion, provide a template for a case brief, and then illustrate case briefing in a step-by-step manner. Students might prepare case briefs in a step-by-step fashion that follows the instructor’s modeling and template.

Backward Design focuses on what students need to know, understand and be able to do as a result of provided instruction[3]. The desired result is the catalyst for all related instructional and assessment planning. Emphasis is placed on essential questions and what is most important for students to understand and know (student learning), rather than on materials, topics and content an instructor might be most comfortable with (student teaching). Student understanding is a central focus of the backward design methodology[3].

Pursuant to the Backward Design model, desired results of instruction might be based upon national, state and local standards. Results might be tied to professional goals and workplace needs, as well. This model prioritizes knowledge and focuses on what is most important for students to understand and achieve. Arguably, if design begins with the end in mind, instruction is more likely to clearly focus on the identified desired results[3].

Some argue that this model places too heavy a focus on the result (or test) at the expense of the learning journey or experience[2]. Others caution that there are risks of incorrectly identifying which knowledge is essential for students to understand. There are concerns for too narrow a focus on results, where a design does not address all elements of a lesson or workplace needs and results in little flexibility to incorporate alternate paths to achieve a final goal. Finally, the Backward Design process can be time consuming (to learn and in practice)

Model of Hierarchical Complexity

The Model of Hierarchical Complexity, sometimes referred to as the MHC in educational psychology, is a framework used to explore and organize the patterns of human development. It is a theory used when working with behavioral development in particular.

The MHC functions to give rank or order to the developmental complexity of a certain behavior. It is the basis for other hierarchical theories of development, such as Piaget. It was originally developed by Michael Commons, an American behavioral scientist.

Contributors: Michael Commons (1939 — present)

Key Concepts

Task Analysis

MHC is based on a system of task analysis in which tasks are broken down into minute steps and then analyzed based on their complexity in relation to the individual’s development. [1] The task is initiated when the individual is presented with a stimulus, and their behavior(s) in reaction to that task are what are analyzed for their developmental complexity. For example, an infant presented with a bright-colored toy would not reach toward the object or even train their eyes in its direction, but an older baby further along in the development process would do so.

Stages of hierarchical complexity

0 — calculatory stage

Characterized by having solely the capacity for computation, this stage functions as the “control” of sorts as it can be used to describe the hierarchical complexity of computers.

1 — automatic stage

Individual can respond to one environmental stimulus at a time.

2 — sensory or motor stage

Individual can move their limbs and parts of their face and view things. They begin to react to conditioned stimuli and form responses with discrimination.

3 — circular-sensory-motor stage

Individual can reach for, touch, or grab things. In terms of speech, individual will babble and is beginning to grasp phonemes (word parts).

4 — sensory-motor stage

Individual responds to stimuli based on their established concept of it.

5 — nominal stage

Individual can use names for objects as well as make commands. They begin to identify relationships between the concepts they have established and can name those as well.

6 — sentential stage

Individual can imitate others and acquire words or sentences through imitation, as well as following a sequence of acts presented by others.

7 — preoperational stage

Individual practices early deductive reasoning, engages in imitation, and can follow and tell a story or sequence of events.

8 — primary stage

Individual begins to make simple logical reasoning with regard to rules and time, also begins to grasp simple arithmetic.

9 — concrete stage

Individual can engage more deeply with arithmetic problems, understand more about social and group relations, and establish relationships with others and self.

10 — abstract stage

Individual begins to understand variables such as stereotypes and logic skills become more formalized.

11 — formal stage

Individual can argue using linear logic, can solve problems with one unknown, such as in algebra.

12 — systematic stage

Individual can establish and understand systems and understands relationships and logic problems with more than one variable or unknown.

13 — metasystematic stage

Individual can form relationships between systems and understand similarities and differences.

14 — paradigmatic stage

Individual can fit these new “metasystems” to form larger-picture paradigms, as well as point out inconsistencies between the various metasystems.

15 — cross-paradigmatic stage

Individual can see relationship between multiple paradigms, such as “this perspective is like that perspective because they both incorporate…”

16 — meta-cross-paradigmatic or performative-recursive stage

Individual can reflect on the similarities and differences between paradigmatic relationships. For example, “these two perspectives are inter-related because…”

These stages are linked to an age or developmental milestone in an individual’s life in various stage models. Some stage-based theories even use the same names as the MHC’s 16 stages, though most do not encompass it in its entirety.

Criticism

Some developmental psychologists feel that the MHC phases are overly precise. Their criticism is that the MHC goes into too much detail of the various complexities of task analysis, and that the phases are less significant beyond stage 12, the systematic stage.

What is the discovery approach?

Discovery learning is a technique of inquiry-based learning and is considered a constructivist based approach to education. ... It is supported by the work of learning theorists and psychologists Jean Piaget, Jerome Bruner, and Seymour Papert.

Flipped Classrooms

Flipped classrooms are a method of instruction and form of blended learning. This model gets its name from the way it “flips” the traditional classroom model. Using this method, students watch videos or listen to lectures at home. When they come to class meetings, instructors facilitate group work and other activities that would typically be considered “homework.”

The idea of flipped classrooms emerged from a 1993 publication by researcher Alison King called “From Sage on the Stage to Guide on the Side.” While the work did not explicitly call for the use of “flipping” classrooms, it did call for the use of class time to give meaning to the information students learn. For this assertion, King’s work is often considered the foundation for flipped classrooms.

Contributors:  Alison King

Key Concepts

Variations

There is no unilateral consensus on what constitutes a flipped classroom. Rather, the definition is expansive, and can describe nearly any structure in which lectures are pre-recorded and received at home and activities are facilitated during class meetings, thereby flipping the traditional class set-up.

Instead of lecturing during class time, instructors typically function as facilitators. They might use the time in-class to clarify information from the at-home lectures or to gauge student understanding and growth through various activities. Other instructors might only adopt some elements of the flipped classroom model, or to only flip some classes during the semester. The model is highly adaptable and able to suit a variety of class environments.

Significance

Many students in typical lecture-style classes report struggling to keep up with the speaker and retain the information that is being delivered. By giving pre-recorded lectures, students are able to take their time at home to listen, understand, and take notes. The lectures are also available later on for review alongside the students’ notes and activities from class, which can work as a study aid. All this aids student retention of information, engagement during class, and enhances their understanding of the material. [1]

In addition, for students with disabilities such as a hearing impairment, or for students for whom English a second language, having additional time to learn material before accessing and utilizing the information they have learned in class can be crucial. Using classroom meetings to practice applying a concept can help instructors to guide learning, and to help students to self-assess and redirect their focus.

Costs and Benefits

While there are significant benefits to the flipped classroom model, there are also some difficulties that may arise. For one, flipping the classroom requires significant preparation on the part of the instructor. Not only do they have to pre-plan and record their lectures, they also have to utilize technology to make them available to students and troubleshoot any errors that may arise. If their chosen technology fails, the student may not be able to receive the lecture, and will be unprepared for class. One some level, this is inevitable, but at the same time, it can disrupt student learning and derail class meeting time.

In the same respect, flipping the classroom places more responsibility on the student than in traditional models. As mentioned in the example above, it requires students to come to class prepared, which leaves a lot of room for potential derailment. However, at the same time, with this responsibility comes freedom: students might be more responsible for their own preparation, but they are able to do so however they choose, and class time is devoted to peer-to-peer interaction and personal experimentation. This promotes both social development through group and partner work, but also fosters independence and self-esteem as students put their knowledge to the test individually and collaboratively

Backup Systems (Redundancy)

Summary: The concept of backup systems, also known as redundancy, originated in the field of engineering. Many mechanical systems are created in such a way that if one part of the system fails, the system as a whole will still be able to function due to the presence of backup components. Redundancy and backup plans should play an important role in many decision-making processes for the purpose of risk reduction.Originator: Jon von Neumann (1903-1957)

Keywords: reliability, reliability engineering, redundancy, independent backup system, mechanical engineering, risk reduction, safety plan, disaster recovery, backup software

Backup systems were first described in the field of mechanical engineering by Jon von Neumann. In his well-known work, Probabilistic Logics and Synthesis of Reliable Organisms from Unreliable Components, Neumann described how computers can be built with redundant parts as a “technique [that] can be used to control error.”[i] In the years to come, redundancy would become an essential concept in designing complex mechanical systems.

The engineering behind aircrafts is a prime example of how engineers use backup systems today. If an airplane experiences any form of mechanical failure while in the sky, this is clearly a major problem. Because of the inherent risk found in air travel, airplanes are built in a mechanically redundant way, with a number of backup systems in place. For example, most airplanes can run on only one engine, even though they have four engines in all. Up to three of these engines could fail, and the airplane would still be able to fly.

It has been argued that the redundancy of back-up systems should be used as a “design paradigm” for all modern technology. From airplanes to computers, from communication systems to emergency preparedness, backup systems should be an essential component of how society designs all important technology.

Backup Systems and Risk Reduction

When considered from the standpoint of making decisions, backup systems are a form of reducing risk in a variety of areas. The decision to include or not include backup systems can have a huge impact on communities, businesses, and individuals.

Backup systems are important to use in mechanical systems as described above, software systems, and for backing up data. Research shows that redundancy in software systems can reduce human error.[ii] And in terms of backup of data, many people know the importance of saving documents in multiple places to reduce the risk of losing information. For example, an important document might be saved on a computer hard drive, an external disc, and an online storage system. Some businesses have backup policies in place to ensure the safety of important documents.

Backup systems are especially important in decisions about emergency preparedness. In natural disasters, backup systems should be put into place to ensure that people have enough fuel, food, and shelter. When performing field work or travel in remote areas, redundancy in communication is important. A group should be able to communicate with the outside world through multiple means such as walkie talkies, cellphones, and flares to ensure help could find them should something go wrong.

Human backup systems are also important to consider.[iii] Are there enough operators to respond to 911 calls? Are there enough policeman to back up their coworkers and enough fireman for an area?

In situations where things could easily go wrong, redundancy is important to decrease the risk of negative outcomes.

Law of Large Numbers

Summary: The Law of Large Numbers is a statistical theory related to the probability of an event. This theory states that the greater number of times an event is carried out in real life, the closer the real-life results will compare to the statistical or mathematically proven results. In research studies, this means that large sample sizes average out to be more reflective of reality than small sample sizes.Originators: Gerolama Cardano (1501-1576), Jacob Bernoulli (1654-1705)

Key Words: Probability, mathematics, sample size, anomalies, statistics, percentage, average, mean

The Law of Large Numbers was first observed by the mathematician Gerolama Cardano in the 16th century. Cardano noticed the theoretical presence of The Law of Large Numbers, but he never took the time to prove it mathematically. Another mathematician, Jacob Bernoulli, figured out the equations behind The Law of Large Numbers in 1713.[i]

A simple way to understand The Law of Large Numbers is to consider the probability of a coin toss. When a coin is tossed, there is a 50% chance that the coin will land on heads and a 50% chance that the coin will land on tails. This is a statistically proven fact. However, if a person tossed a coin in the air 5 times, there is a chance that the coin would land on heads every single time. This event would not seem to align with the mathematically proven probability of landing on tails 50% of the time.

How can we explain this? These real-life results don’t mean the math is wrong. They simply mean that the coin toss has to be carried out more times to accurately reflect what math says is true. If the same person tossed the coin in the air 500 times, by the end of all the tosses, the coin would have landed on heads an average of 250 times and on tails an average of 250 times. The real life coin toss is now more reflective of what math says to be true because it has been carried out a larger number of times.

Sample Sizes

The Law of Large Numbers is most applicable to scientific research and sample sizes.[ii] When scientists complete research studies, they make decisions about how many people will be in the study. This is an important decision because small sample sizes can greatly skew results due to the presence of anomalies. The larger the sample size, the more the results will reflect the true nature of the population that is being studied.

Consumers trying to understand scientific research should take sample size into consideration when determining the validity of a study. Scientists should do everything within in their power to work with large sample sizes, as this makes their work more accurate and thus more beneficial to society.

Personal Decisions

The Law of Large Numbers is also an important reminder that individual instances don’t provide the whole story. There are times when people make decisions based on one event or instance they have experienced or heard about. This is often a bad way to make decisions.

For example, someone might hear a story about how their friend had a terrible reaction to a medication and refuse to take that medication based on that one example. However, this is a bad way to make a choice about medication, as one experience or story is often not reflective of the way things typically work. The medication may be extremely safe, and the one story simply reflects an anomaly. When making personal decisions it is important to gather a range of information. The Law of Large Numbers explains the theory and mathematics behind this important concept.

Scarcity

Summary: Scarcity is an economic term that describes the mindset people develop when they have many needs and not enough resources to meet those needs. When people operate out of a scarcity mindset, it can greatly impair their decision-making abilities.Originators: Lionel Robbins (1898-1984), Sendhil Mullainathan (1972 to Present), Eldar Shafir (1959 to Present)

Keywords: paucity, poverty, scarcity mindset, resources, allocation of resources, cognitive load, goal-setting, short-term goals, long-term goals, finances, financial wellbeing, attention, effort, tunneling

Lionel Robbins was the first person to discuss the field of economics using the concept of scarcity of resources. In his article, An Essay on the Nature and Significance of Economic Science, Lionel stated, “Economics is the science which studies human behavior as a relationship between ends and scarce means which have alternative uses.”[i]

The concept of scarcity has been further developed since then. Key research on the topic of scarcity has recently been completely by the behavioral scientists Sendhil Mullainathan and Eldar Shafir.

Perhaps the most pertinent example of scarcity is found in people who live in poverty. Research has found that living in a state of poverty impairs peoples’ decision-making abilities. This is because poverty leads to a scarcity mindset that negatively changes the way a person thinks, plans, and operates. Research has shown two main ways in which this happens.

First, living in a state of scarcity, “imposes a cognitive load that saps attention and reduces effort.”[ii] Researchers studied low-income and high-income individuals who were faced with a large expense such as a car repair. They found that low-income individuals performed worse on an unrelated reasoning task when they were considering this repair than when they didn’t have additional expenses to consider. On the other hand, high-income individuals performed equally well on the task, whether they were considering an expense or not. The researchers hypothesized that this occurred because the high-income individuals did not have to worry about not being able to pay the expense, and therefore did not have to allocate any of their attention away from the reasoning task.

Second, living in a state of scarcity impairs peoples’ ability to make and carry out healthy long-term goals.[iii] The cognitive load described above leads to bad decision making. People become focused on present, short-term goals such as how to deal with immediate expenses. This is called tunneling – the brain becomes so focused on a particular short-term problem that it can’t focus on anything else.

People who engage in tunneling may make bad financial decisions such as playing the lottery or borrowing too much money. These bad decisions, that they hope will help them deal with the short-term problem of paying for a bill, can lead people into worse situations than they were in before.

From Scarcity to Abundance

Scarcity is also present in other situations such as when workers are not given enough resources to do their jobs or in the aftermath of a natural disaster when there aren’t enough goods to go around. Sometimes people even live out of a scarcity mindset when there are plenty resources to go around. When people make decisions from a scarcity mindset, they hoard resources, only think of themselves, and live with a lot of anxiety.

Steven Covey is a businessman who wrote a book entitled The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People. In the context of business, Covey encourages people to embrace an abundance mentality over a scarcity mentality as they make decisions about their lives and careers.[iv] People with an abundance mentality make decisions out of a mindset that there is enough to go around. They are more generous with their resources, more gracious when other people succeed, and less anxious that they will miss out. They make decisions out of a belief that there is enough to go around.

Pareto Principle

Summary: The Pareto Principle describes how in a variety of situations, 80% of a product or phenomenon’s output often comes from only 20% of the available input. For example, a business may receive 80% of its income from the sale of only 20% of the products available in their inventory.Originators: Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923), Dr. Joseph, M. Juran (1904-2008)

Keywords: 20/80 principle, 20/80 law, 20/80 rule, productivity, business, prioritizing, Pareto’s principle of unequal distribution, distribution, wealth distribution, input, output, products, profit

The concepts behind the Pareto Principle were described by Vilfredo Pareto in the late 19th century. Pareto observed the wealth distribution in his home country of Italy and noticed that 80% of all the wealth was held by 20% of Italy’s richest people.

In the 1940s, Dr. Joseph Juran was studying Pareto’s work and realized that this 80/20 rule could also be applied to the area of quality control. When looking at defects in products, he observed that most of these defects were being caused by a small number of problems in the production process. He called this principle Pareto’s Rule in honor of its founder.[i]

Over time, people have described how this 80/20 law can be applied to a variety of areas related to economics, productivity, marketing, cost estimating, and healthcare.

Real Life Examples

A number of real life examples describe how a smaller percent of a situation’s effects lead to a much greater percent of that situation’s results.

In 2002, Microsoft announced that 80% of errors that occur in their system are caused by 20% of all bugs found in their system.[ii]

The American distribution of wealth holds closely to the 80/20 rule. In 2012, 20% of Americans held 89% of all wealth in America.[iii]

Pareto’s principle has been noted in relation to healthcare, as a small percentage of patients use the majority of healthcare resources.[iv]

Prioritization and Increasing Productivity

Pareto’s principle continues to help people by showing best ways to prioritize resources. Noticing unequal patterns of distribution and acting on this knowledge is a great way to improve businesses and personal productivity. Those who observe this principle are able to prioritize in ways that lead to increased quality, productivity, and profit.

For example, in some businesses, 20% of employees complete 80% of the work. Employers may notice workers who are high producers and consider providing a raise or promotion. Contrarily, they might notice low producers and seek to determine what is leading to low levels of output.

In some businesses, 80% of sales come from a mere 20% of products. Some products are much more popular than others. Businesses may take notice of what qualities these popular products hold and seek to produce similar products that appeal in the same way.

If 80% of views on a blog come from 20% of the articles, this is a helpful way to determine best types of articles in the future. Or, if a person completes 80% of their best work in 20% of their working time, this is a great way to consider what conditions lead to greatest productivity.

Pareto’s principle helps people notice patterns and act on them to improve the ways they go about work and production. It helps people decide how to best use resources to make a profit.

Inversion

 Summary: Inversion is an assessment strategy that looks at problems backwards. Difficult problems often need to be considered from another angle. Instead of trying to figure out the correct or optimal answer to a question, inversion considers how to avoid incorrect or poor answers.Originators: Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi (1804-1851), Charlie Munger (1924-Present)

Keywords: backward thinking, opposite, premortem analysis, question inversion, inversion thinking, avoiding failure, risk reduction, project management, worst case scenario

Several people have contributed to the concept of inversion in the context of making decisions. Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi was a mathematician famous for telling his students to “invert, always invert” as they were solving their math problems. In other words, when students were stuck on a problem, he encouraged them to consider it from another angle, working the problem backwards instead of forwards.

Charlie Munger is an investor who popularized Jacobi’s thoughts on inversion. Munger, who is still alive today, often tells a famous story to explain the concept of inversion: There was a man who wanted to figure out where he was going to die, so he could make sure to avoid that place.

As a more practical example of inversion, Munger has encouraged college students to think of traits they do not want to exemplify, such as slothfulness and unreliability. People who avoid these traits will automatically find themselves moving towards more positive traits, becoming hardworking and reliable over time.[i]

3 Practical Ways to Use Inversion

Inversion is a highly effective decision-making strategy that can be used in many spheres of life. Here are three practical ways to use inversion.

Perform a premortem analysis. This strategy is used before the commencement of large projects. A team of people about to start a large project will gather together to think through the work ahead of them.[ii] They think about the end of the project and imagine every possible scenario that could go wrong. Together the team members talk through possible reasons for failure, and come up with plans to prevent potential problems.

Invert your questions. When thinking about problems, inversion can help people rephrase their questions in a different way. For example, when considering investment strategies, a person might ask, “How could I potentially lose money?” instead of “How can I make money?” In assessing barriers to productivity, a person might ask, “What are some things that would distract me more?” instead of “How can I concentrate better?”

Brainstorm how to be unsuccessful. Most people think of ways to succeed and ways to become the person they want to be. To look at this from a different viewpoint, people might consider who they don’t want to be and what would make them unsuccessful. What traits would make them fail at their job? What mistakes do they have the potential to make today?

Inversion simply helps people consider a problem from a different angle, which often brings new and creative insights into the picture.

Padlet: Collaborative Canvas Tool

 Padlet: Padlet is a very user-friendly canvas or digital bulletin board that allows people to collaborate and insert anything (images, videos, documents, text) via drag and drop. This tool is very flexible and can be used creatively in a classroom context in many ways.

Equitable Participation

Despite the recent trend in online learning towards personalization and competency-based learning, there is inherent value in learning from others. While this can be accomplished in the traditional brick-and-mortar classroom without technology, student participation is typically not even. Some students like to answer every question while others do not want to actively participate. Purposeful technology use can help to alleviate the problem of uneven student engagement in a physical classroom. When education is moved to the online environment, this intentional focus on connecting students to each other and the teacher is critical. Padlet is a tool that creates a student-centered learning environment that prompts participation and articulation of student understanding. Padlet is very intuitive to use and is functional across multiple devices. Flipping the classroom is only as powerful as the experience for students. Padlet strengthens this experience.

Applying Theory to Practice

The design of the Padlet will vary based on the learning theory used. It is, by nature, a social learning tool focused on students constructing their own knowledge. Digging a little deeper, a prompt that forces students to experience uncomfortable cognitive dissonance is feasible through constructive argumentation. Connectivism and the associated social network analysis is inherent through Padlet design features. The application of learning theories is as varied as the imagination of the classroom in which Padlet is used.

There are five different styles of Padlet. They can range from a Pinterest style to a poll to a class debate. The tool is focused exclusively on fostering a shared sense of ownership, and subsequently, participation in the course. This social learning focus extends to the instructor through finding collaborators and model Padlets.

Fully Utilizing the Tool

With teaching, grading, communicating with parents, and volunteering teachers frequently have little spare time to investigate new teaching techniques. Sometimes, this is encountered through professional development. However, it is hard to integrate these technologies into everyday teaching practices. When the tool has a low learning curve and the ability to try without financial repercussions it becomes more attractive to teachers. To observe the tool being used check out our guide over at EdTechGuides.

Padlet is free to use. However, if you want to use Padlet Backpack, it provides an additional layer of customization and privacy for your classroom. The Padlet is constantly saved and has availability in 29 languages. There are different levels of access based on the stakeholder role. Padlet is able to work with virtually any file type or embedding directly from various apps. The home page will have your dashboard, Padlets, activity, attachments, collaborators, and settings.

Dashboard: This is your home page. At this page, you will see any recent Padlets and contributions to those Padlets.

Padlets: This page lists all of the Padlets you have created. This is where you select those five different Padlet types. These types allow for customization and the application of different theories of learning.

Activity: Recent activity will show here in greater detail than on the dashboard.

Attachments: If there is any attachment being used in a Padlet, this is where it can be uploaded and shared.

Collaborators: Using this feature, teachers can find both local and distant collaborators with which to create or build upon existing Padlets.

Settings: Allows users to choose their preferences and reset their username and password. This is also where you can control overall privacy settings.

ExploreLearning: Active Experimentation

 Science and math concepts are often some of the most challenging for students to grasp. It is not enough to listen to a teacher talk about concepts and then complete standard assignments. Rather, a learner must be able to learn from the teacher in addition to interacting with simulations and experiments. Physical science experiments and mathematical manipulatives are great ways to practice inquiry. However, they are not suitable for all concepts or learning environments. ExploreLearning Gizmos provides a holistic learning experience, featuring a large library of over 400 simulations.

Reasons Physical Manipulation is Insufficient

In a comprehensive review of virtual and physical science labs it was found that the ideal science laboratory curriculum contained both physical and virtual labs (De Jong, Linn, & Zacharia, 2013). This is because they each have different affordances and constraints and can complement each other. Virtual simulations afford the opportunity to practice multiple times with a phenomena and to explore concepts that can’t be a physical lab. When it comes to learning environments, virtual simulations and manipulations are often the only type of inquiry experience that online students have. They can also be used for home school or homebound students. ExploreLearning is a comprehensive science and math software that comes complete with differentiated simulations, teacher guides, student worksheets, assessments, and state and national standards. The virtual simulations in ExploreLearning are known as Gizmos and these terms will be used interchangeably.

Applying Theory to Practice

A limiting feature of virtual simulations is that they do not create the ill-structured, problem-solving environment that is so foundational to the practice of math and science. However, ExploreLearning scaffolds students so that by the end of the worksheet, they are expected to control confounding variables and operate the simulation in order to solve a research question. Broadly speaking, ExploreLearning falls under the scope of constructivism. More specifically, it falls under the scope of project-based learning, cognitive dissonance, or Kolb’s experiential learning cycle. These learning theories are complementary and could be seen in the same learning sequence depending on the perspective someone takes.

Utilizing ExploreLearning

ExploreLearning comes with a free trial to assign as many simulations as you want to your students. This allows you to try the product without fully creating a course and tracking student assessment data over courses. With this trial, you are able to download the student guide and have students take the quiz at the end of the simulation. EdTechGuides provides nice example of the ExploreLearning tool in action. All of the instructional design is already done and the simulations are ready to use. This reduces the time a teacher needs to devote to creating a lesson plan from scratch.

ExploreLearning has several nice features, not limited to:

Differentiated Gizmos: Students in the same grade level are going to have vastly different abilities. ExploreLearning has created the same Gizmo at multiple developmental levels. This allows you to assign Gizmos based on the student’s level while ensuring that everyone is engaging with the same content.

Recommended Gizmos: Based on previous searches and selections, ExploreLearning is able to give you a recommendation as to what other simulations would be of relevance to you.

Searching by Standards: ExploreLearning has aligned Gizmos with multiple different standards from individual states to the Next Generation Science Standards and Common Core. This is particularly helpful if you have an articulated curriculum that mandates when concepts are taught.

Responsive Design: Gizmos work on a variety of devices and sizes including PC, iOS, Chromebooks, and Android devices.

Feedback Loops

Overview: Feedback loops are cause-and-effect processes within organisms and systems. Negative feedback loops serve to maintain homeostasis or equilibrium. Positive feedback loops are used to intensify or change the status of a system.Originators: Karl Ferdinand Braun (1850-1918), Henri Louis Le Chatelier (1850-1936)

Keywords: homeostasis, feedback, cause-and-effect system, circuit, circle, positive feedback, negative feedback, closed system, amplify

The concept of feedback loops has been around since the 18th century, but the actual term “feedback” wasn’t used until later. In the 1880s, Karl Ferdinand Braun and Henri Louis Le Chatelier separately discovered how systems tend to respond to stimuli by seeking to establish a new equilibrium.[i] The concepts behind their research form the basis of current information on feedback loops.

Feedback loops allow organisms and systems to maintain control of important processes by signaling back whether an input should be intensified or stopped. In its simplest form, a feedback loop might include two factors, which can be labeled A and B. In the feedback loop, A impacts B, and this stimulation of B leads it to have a return impact on A.

Feedback loops are often much more complex than this, and can include more than two factors. Feedback loops can be either positive or negative, with each type of feedback loop being used in different types of processes.

Negative Feedback Loops

A negative feedback loop seeks to maintain homeostasis. Homeostasis is the ability to stay within specific boundaries so that an organism or system can function at optimal levels.

A furnace thermostat is an example of a negative feedback loop. This negative feedback system allows a house to stay at a proper temperature, without becoming too hot or too cold. Based on the set temperature, a thermostat signals to a furnace that more heat is needed. The furnace produces more heat, and once the heat reaches the set temperature, the heat signals the thermostat to turn the furnace off. Should the temperature in the room decrease, the thermostat is trigged once more to turn the furnace back on, and the feedback loop continues. In this way, the thermostat triggers the furnace to turn on and off throughout the day to maintain the proper temperature.

Positive Feedback Loops

Positive feedback loops don’t seek to maintain homeostasis; rather, they move organisms or systems away from homeostasis, seeking to intensify or change certain processes.[ii]

Childbirth is an example of a positive feedback loop. In the case of childbirth, the body must move steadily away from homeostasis for the baby to be safely born. Hormones and nerve impulses in the body lead to contractions, which cause the baby to be pushed against the cervix. This pressure against the cervix signals more nerve impulses which intensifies contractions and continues the loop around again. Rather than keeping the body within a set of boundaries, the goal of this positive feedback loop is to amplify contractions more and more until the child is born. 

Using Feedback Loops to Improve Organizations

Feedback loops are natural mechanisms found in a variety of fields such as biology, physics, engineering, and mathematics. People have observed these feedback loops in nature and considered how this concept can help organizations and groups of people function more effectively.

Many academic institutions, places of employment, and businesses ask their students, employees, and customers to fill out feedback forms. Feedback forms typically ask for suggestions for how the organization can improve. A common problem is that these institutions fail to close the feedback loop by taking action based on the results of the feedback. For the system to function as an actual loop, the organization needs to respond and put into practice the suggestions that were made.

The Tragedy of the Commons

Summary:  The Tragedy of the Commons is an economic theory that describes how people often use natural resources to their advantage without considering the good of a group or society as a whole. When a number of individuals consider only their own welfare in this manner, it leads to negative outcomes for everybody, as the natural resource becomes depleted.Originators: William Forster Lloyd (1794-1952), Garrett Hardin (1915-2003)

Keywords: resources, natural resources, depletion, over-use, the commons, exploitation, pollution, over-fishing, deforestation, global warming, government regulation, taxation, public property, private property

In 1833, William Forster Lloyd wrote a short pamphlet detailing the concepts behind the economic theory known as The Tragedy of the Commons. The contents of this pamphlet were mostly unknown until 1968, when Garrett Hardin wrote an article in Science magazine that brought Lloyd’s work into the spotlight.[i]

Understanding this economic theory requires a working definition of what is meant by “the commons.” “The commons” includes any natural resources that are not owned by an individual or corporation. Rather, these resources are available for public use. This might include public pasture land, lumber, oil, the oceans, the atmosphere, wildlife and fish, and many other common resources.

The Tragedy of the Commons describes how people often take advantage of resources that are freely available to them. Often, they don’t consider the fact that if everyone over-uses the resource, this will lead to negative effects for everyone, including themselves.

The famous example given by Hardin (1968) includes pastureland that people use to graze their cattle. Herdsmen who operate under The Tragedy of the Commons don’t consider how excessive grazing or adding additional cattle to their herd will impact other herdsman or everyone as a whole in the long run. The more herdsman who only consider their own herd and profit, the more the pasture is run down and the more all of the herds suffer. As Hardin (1968) put it, “Freedom in a commons brings ruin to all.”

Current Examples

The Tragedy of the Commons is relevant to many current issues.

National Parks are often cited as a prime example.[ii] More and more people have visited the U. S. National Parks since WWII, leading to concerns about the exploitation of environmental resources.

Overfishing is another relevant topic.[iii] Many bodies of water including oceans, lakes, and rivers, are open to the publish for fishing. This has led to many species of fish becoming endangered and many fisheries finding themselves in trouble. Increased regulations and privatization of certain bodies of water has led to improvements in this area.

Pollution and climate change have also been cited as an example. [iv] The atmosphere can be seen as a global resource, and as people fail to limit the amount of pollution they produce, everyone is affected by the resulting climate change.

Other problems that some people have connected to The Tragedy of the Commons are deforestation, overpopulation, depletion of gas and oil reservoirs, and harm to ground water.

Several solutions have been proposed to offset negative outcomes related to The Tragedy of the Commons.[v] In general, solving this problem requires collaboration and cooperation as people come together to preserve resources for the good of all. Regulation and taxation by the government can limit the effects people have on certain resources. Informal or formal property rights can be given to individuals or groups to restrict peoples’ over-use of other resources.

[i] Hardin, G. (1968). The tragedy of the commons. Science, 162(3859), 1243-1248.

[ii] Wozniak, S. & Buchs, A. (2013). U.S. national parks and “the tragedy of the commons”. Journal of Alpine Research, 101(4).  

[iii] Benjamin, D. (2001). Fisheries are classic example of the “tragedy of the commons”. PERC Report, 19(1).

[iv] O’Gorman, M. (2010). Global warming: A tragedy of the commons. Comparative Research in Law and Political Economy, 6(7).

[v] Libecap, G. D. (2008). The tragedy of the commons: Property rights and markets as solutions to resources and environmental problems. The Australian Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 53(1), 129-144.

 Law of Diminishing Returns

Overview: The Law of Diminishing Returns is an economic theory that describes how at a certain point, increasing labor does not yield an equally increasing amount of productivity. In other words, when the amount of input increases over time, at some point the rate of output decreases for each unit of input.Originators: Anne Robert Jacques Turgot (1727-1781), Thomas Malthus (1766-1834), David Ricardo (1772-1823) [i]

Key words: production, economics, labor, agriculture, growth over time, rate of return, diminishing returns, law of diminishing marginal returns

The Law of Diminishing Returns was developed by a number of economists in the 19th century. Original thought on this economic theory was mostly discussed in terms of farming, fertilizer, and the production of crops.

An early research study on the impact of fertilizer provides a good example.[ii] Soil contains a limited number of nutrients that enable it to grow a maximum number of crops. Adding fertilizer to soil is one way to increase the amount of crop that can be produced on a plot of land. However, there is a limit to how much increasing fertilizer leads to an equal increase in the amount of plants.

This early study highlighted research on the impact of monobasic phosphate of lime – a type of fertilizer – on potted plants. Units of fertilizer were added to potted plants, after which the rate of growth of the plants was measured. When one unit of fertilizer was added, this led to a 44.3% increase in yield per unit of fertilizer. When 2.5 units of fertilizer were added, this led to a 10.8% increase in yield of plants per unit. Finally, when 10.0 units of fertilizer were added, this led to a 2.0% increase in yield of plants per unit. The more units of fertilizer that were added, the less yield of return each unit of fertilizer produced.

The Law of Diminishing Return began as an economic theory, but over time, people have shown how it’s application covers a broad range of other areas.

Employee work hours: Increasing the number of hours that an employee works leads to greater productivity to an extent. However, after hours are increased to a certain point, the employee ends up being less productive due to burnout, illness, and absenteeism.[iii]

Healthcare: Research has shown that when doctors use medical interventions, more is not always better.[iv] Over time, an excessive number of medical interventions can actually harm a patient instead of lead to improvement. Doctors need to weight the costs and benefits of each intervention, considering at what point a patient will experience diminishing returns.

Education: One study found that student’s grades increase the more they study, but only up to an extent. [v] Students who studied between 60 and 120 minutes received better grades than those who studied under 60 minutes. However, as soon as students began studying more than 120 minutes, their grades began to fall lower than those who studied between 30 and 60 minutes.

Many areas of life are impacted by the Law of Diminishing Returns, which provides a good reminder that sometimes working smarter is better than working harder.

Confirmation Bias (Wason)

Summary: Confirmation bias is a cognitive error that people make when they are only willing to accept new information when it confirms what they already believe. People who fall into the trap of confirmation bias tend to purposefully seek out evidence that supports already solidified beliefs and purposefully reject any evidence that goes against those beliefs.Originator: Peter Wason (1924-2003)

Keywords: inductive reasoning, confirmatory bias, myside bias, verification bias, interpretation, primacy effect, belief persistency, Pollyanna principle

Confirmation bias was first described in the 1960s, when several studies completed by the psychologist Peter Wason showed that people tend to seek out confirming evidence alone when drawing conclusions about simple tasks.[i]

In one of Wason’s first studies, subjects were told by the experimenter that they would be given “three numbers which confirm to a simple rule that I have in mind.” The subjects were asked to come up with an initial hypothesis of what they thought the rule was. They were then invited to write down sets of numbers that they believed conformed to the rule. The experimenter would then tell them if the numbers conformed to the rule or not, and the subjects could note the outcome. The subjects were allowed to repeat this procedure until they believed they had figured out the rule.

Wason was surprised that more than half of his subjects were unable to figure out the simple rule using this method. He believed these people failed because they only tested examples of the numbers that conformed to their original hypothesis. Additionally, they were unwilling to test examples that went against their original hypothesis. Wason coined the term “confirmation bias” and continued to study this cognitive error throughout his career.

Further Research

Research on confirmation bias has continued over the decades, showing a number of interesting results that are detailed as follows.[ii]

• In general, when developing opinions on a topic, people primarily look for positive cases and resist negative cases.
• When people make a hypothesis about something, they typically need less evidence for the hypothesis to accept it than evidence against the hypothesis to reject it.
• People tend to see what they are looking for, even if it’s not there. When people look through data they often find evidence to support their beliefs in ways that are not consistent with actual patterns in the evidence.
• To confirm their beliefs, people often look at data that is correlated and perceive a higher correlation than is actually present.
• People have a tendency to believe things that are desirable. This is known as the Pollyanna principle.
• The more strongly people hold to a belief and the more overconfident they are in that belief, the more likely they are to fall into confirmation bias.
• People tend to hold on to first impressions, even if future information refutes the original evidence.

Relevant Issues

Confirmation bias is an important issue to understand because of how much it plays into relevant social issues. Confirmation bias impacts peoples’ views on social issues such as race, capital punishment, politics, religion, women’s rights, climate change, vaccinations, and more. The impact of confirmation bias is extensive, leading to many problems and misplaced ideas. Because of this, understanding the concepts behind confirmation bias is crucial for people of all ages and in all walks of life.

What are the different types of discovery?

There are basically six types of discovery in family court: 1) interrogatories; 2) requests for production of documents and inspection 3) requests for admissions; 4) depositions; 5) subpoenas duces tecum; 6) physical and mental examinations.

What is Bruner's theory?

Constructivist Theory (Jerome Bruner) A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge.