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MPA 616 Cultural Competence in a Global Society      Warren E. Hamilton

Spring 2018 - Final Paper                  February 17, 2018

This paper will examine how both globally, and in America, that Immigration rates vary over time, and fluctuate up and down with:

 Changes in the global economy and domestic business cycles, which influences the general level of business demand for labor. This demand then has an impact on the flow of immigrants world-wide; and,

Changes in the opinions and perspectives of elected officials, public administrators, and the general public. These changing opinions and perspectives are part of the decision making process that politicians and public administrators use to create and implement policy and regulatory systems to control our immigration system.

This paper will include an analysis of the following independent variables: (A) The global economy; (B) American business cycles; (C) Business demand for immigrant labor; and, (D) the opinions and perspectives of both government workers and the general public. When these independent variables change naturally, or through various forms of manipulation, dependent variables that are measured are impacted in multiple ways.

Continuing this approach, this paper will also evaluate and assess the following dependent variables both globally and in America: (A) The type of undocumented immigrants (who they are); (B) the level of undocumented immigrants (how many); and, (C) responses by government and the general public to immigration (knowledge, awareness, policies, and cultural competency). Please note: This assessment defines undocumented immigrants (dependent variable), as both being caused by migration northward (in America), as well as because of the illegal immigrants who were previously admitted legally through a country’s Visa system.

The United States has grappled with problems with undocumented immigrants for decades. There are various reasons why people come to the United States and in recent decades, the undocumented immigrants include both those who have expired VISAs, as well as those that came by way of America’s southern border. The flow of these two different types of undocumented immigrants is dependent on the global economy, business cycles, perceptions about immigrants, and the need for both skilled and unskilled immigrant labor by American businesses. Over the years, this ebb and flow of immigrants has been impacted by changes in the economy, changes in perception, enforcement strategies at the border (and into the interior of border states), verification methods for workers (such as E-Verify), and changes in the number of travel, student, or worker VISAs (such as H-1A and H-1B) authorized by Congress.

According to Orrenius and Zavodny (2010), the recent Great Recession of 2007 was no different than most other recessions, in that the negative effects were worse for poorly educated people, as well as minority workers. Authors Versick and Islam (2010) go on to describe how the housing crisis, and other calamities were connected to a global financial crisis that resulted in the most bleak world-wide economic outlook in over a half century. These researchers have touched on the relationship between the economies of countries around the globe, and how these interconnected economies can either positively or negatively impact business cycles in America.

In the aftermath of the recent Great Recession, authors Orrenius and Zavodny (2010) examined shifting rates of illegal immigrants, as well as immigrant employment rates in the U.S. These authors found that these employment rates are highly reactive to fluctuations in the overall economy and business cycles, and that Mexican immigrants to the U.S. have both employment and unemployment rates that react more (more “elastic”) to cyclical business cycles than White and non-White hispanic natives (Orrenius and Zavodny , 2010). So, while there is an stablished association, or correlation between the economy and immigration, it appears that immigration from Mexico is impacted more under these shifting conditions.

As stated above, one conclusion of this research is that it supports the position that actual immigration rates, and the rates at which immigrants are employed in host countries, are dependent on economic variables and business cycles. While this may seem like common knowledge, these researchers have also shown that the actual rate of employment is also highly dependent on the nationality of these immigrants too, even when controlled for education. In the latter part of this paper, the impact of the level of cultural competence by people will be explored in terms of its impact on public opinion and and public policy regarding undocumented immigrants. 

Authors Hewins-Maroney and Williams (2013) compared global workforce and demographic variables with those same variables in the U.S. These authors found that fluctuating immigration rates have caused similar demographic challenges to the workforce both globally and in the United States. These challenges have significant implications for public administrations both globally and in America, and is an indicator of how responsive and effective government are to these workforce issues (Hewins-Maroney and Williams, 2013). In other words, the economic climate impacts the level of immigration, and within individual country borders, these immigrants create multiple challenges for ordinary citizens, businesses, and policy makers.

Contrary to the talking points of an overwhelming number of politicians at all levels of government, the vast majority of illegal immigrants from Mexico are not coming here to rape, murder, pillage, or sit on the couch all day. This last comment was uttered by President Trump’s Chief of Staff Kelly, when he complained that many potential DACA applicants were not applying because they were lazy and/or could not get of the couch. This comment if taken as a true reflection of his actual sincere thoughts represents a a dearth, or extreme lack of cultural competence. Contrary to these ignorant and racist thoughts, many immigrants are coming here for not only the dream of legalization, but also so they can work to support their families, and to provide for their security and protection. Similarly, the other segment of illegal immigrants who overstayed their VISAs are staying, at least in part, to work.

Lastly, this paper will examine how the concepts and issues listed above can be viewed through the lens of cultural competency, which helps illuminate some of the dynamics around undocumented immigration in America. The general level (or lack thereof) of cultural competence about immigration issues by politicians, and public administrators, can be used as a measure of how successful they are with dealing with these issues.

Historical Background (PART 2 OF OUTLINE)

There have been various policies and programs in the past that have been used to influence, cope with, or mitigate immigration rates. Also, research suggests that more information is needed on the actual employment rates (or attempted employment), of undocumented immigrants, and that systems such as E-Verify can be a useful tool in determining these levels. According to Amuedo-Duarantes and Bansak (2012), E-Verify was implemented as a way to reduce the hiring of undocumented immigrants, yet the effectiveness of this goal is difficult to empirically verify because of the potential for employer misuse, identity fraud, and the ability of undocumented workers to evade E-Verify systems by going where these systems are not widely used.

The impact that “small businesses” have on job creation is well documented by research, and authors Aside and Freeman (2007) put it in perspective by pointing out that these businesses represent 99.9% of all businesses, and have generated 60-80 percent of net new jobs annually from 1997-2007. According to Aside and Freeman (2007), knowing what the impact of globalization is on small businesses can lead to a better understanding of its effects on the U.S. economy.

In a similar way to “small” businesses in America, global immigration rates are also heavily dependent on the level of demand for immigrant workers by countries, which of course is impacted by the overall economic climate and fluctuating business cycles. It must be noted that these immigrants are both documented and undocumented, and the American experience shows that a large number of formerly legal immigrants lose their status (e.g.an expired VISAs), but nevertheless choose to remain here illegally. This particular segment of illegal immigrants are not the ones generally characterized and talked about by the press, and politicians, as illegal immigrants arriving from Mexico. Instead, the general public is bombarded with negative images and caricatures of Mexican immigrants overwhelming our southern border, while the reality is that a very large percentage of undocumented immigrants in America did not come by way of Mexico.

Both Authors Hewins-Maroney and Williams (2013) and Orrenius and Zavodny (2010) have talked about economic determinants of both immigration rates, rates of employment for immigrants, and associated challenges. The youngest boomers are nearing retirement, but as authors Hewins-Maroney and Williams (2013) point out, the newer immigrant workers will be much younger. While these authors are not specifically addressing undocumented immigrants, it is clear that even the undocumented workers are younger that the retiring baby boomers. 

One challenge is that the last of the Baby Boomers are preparing for for retirement, so the workforce has become relatively younger than it was 20 years ago. According to Pew Research (https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2015/05/11/millennials-surpass-gen-xers-as-the-largest-generation-in-u-s-labor-force/) forty-nine (49%) of the labor force in 1996 were Boomers. Using these same figures by Pew Research, by 2015, that number was nearly cut in half to twenty-nine (29%) percent. Also by 2015, this data also shows that sixty-eight (68%) of the workers are now comprised of Gen Xers and Millennials.

In addition to the transition of the labor force to younger Americans, there are other demographic challenges facing this new diversified work force and it will be challenging integrating these individuals into the American work force (Hewins-Maroney and Williams, 2013). These challenges are still extant, so it is important to realize that these challenges can be better understood by having improved cultural awareness and enhanced acceptance of multiculturalism. Therefore it becomes increasingly important to be aware how this integration of the workforce is also impacted by the observable and unobservable differences in these immigrants, and current American workers (Thomas & Ely, 1996; Roberson, 2004). Public administrators, law enforcement, and Immigration and Customs Enforcement & Immigration and Naturalization Service ICS/INS can become more effective if they enhance their understanding of Foundational Cultural Competence, Organizational and Managerial Cultural Competence, and Cultural Quotient.

In prior decades, the United States has embarked on various efforts to cope with, or manage, undocumented immigrant employment, one being the implementation of the system called E-verify. For many reasons this system delivered mixed results in terms of helping to control, or alleviate both the demand for this labor and the subsequent flow of these undocumented immigrants into the U.S. Amuedo-Dorantes and Bansak (2012) describe how as the immigration debate cooled in Washington in 2007, that prompted states to act independent of Congress, and authorize the use of the E-Verify system. Because Congress lacked the political will to hold American businesses accountable for hiring undocumented workers, states predictable authorized a mixed approach. As a result, according to Amuedo-Dorantes and Bansak (2012), the majority of the states only authorized it for new hires, while a hand full mandated it for all employees.

E-Verify was a policy enacted in hopes of putting pressure on business to stop the exploitation of undocumented workers, and using them as cheap immigrant labor. However, there were other policies or control efforts authorized by law, and put into place by regulations and policies by public administrators to help control or manage the flow of undocumented immigrants. These options include hardening the border with more barriers, technological enhancements, and a criminal justice response. Authors Bohn, Freedman, and Owens (2015) indicate that they are concerned that the criminal justice response to illegal immigration is narrowly targeting certain actors. The authors draw this conclusion by assessing the impact of the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 IRCA as a case study, and how it was administered in Bexar County, TX.

Authors Bohn, Freedman, and Owens (2015) found that police responded to IRCA by changing where they patrolled and/or by profiling people who look like immigrants, or who “could be immigrants.” These research findings are supported by contemporary empirical examples, such as the abusive policies instituted by Sheriff Joe Arpaio from Nevada. According to…This sheriff…his actions appear to informed by a gross lack of knowledge about, or care for cultural competence. It is puzzling how the Republican party and POTUS Trump can publicly say that this is a country of “The Rule of Law,” yet turn the other way again, when injustice and abuse is inflicted upon a class of people in such an unconstitutional manner.

HERE

What does an historical analysis of your focus teach about effective/ineffective approaches to the problem?