Facing Forest Fire

It may start with just a spark and soon take over acres of lush land, destroying flora and fauna as it hastens to reach the ultimate destination: human habitat! The wildfire is not just confined to the ‘wild’ but impacts and consequences the human population too. Yet, ironically a majority of forest fires are initiated by humans—intentionally or unintentionally! As yet elusive, unlike fires in urban civilizations, this ‘annual occurrence’ needs a heightened level of management and awareness…

Every year, anytime beginning Feb till June, the forests of Uttarakhand ‘catch’ fire. This year it is no different, though the magnitude of the wild-blaze is much fierce. The forests of Garhwal and Kumaon have been burning since first week of May. The worst is in Srinagar and Haridwar, where crores of rupees worth of forest wood have been lost. Nobody has yet even bothered to estimate the loss to biodiversity—the birds and the animals. All efforts to extinguish the fire were proving futile till filing the report. At the same time, heavy forests have also become ashes in Haldwani and Bageshwar. The wildfire has reached the residential areas as well.

While officials talk of controlling the situation and government provides money, the fact is the forests are still burning! Chief conservator of forests (forest fire and disaster management), BP Gupta, informed over phone: “The situation will be crucial for next few days as the maximum temperature has already touched 40 degrees. The meteorological department has predicted that there will be no respite from heat till May 28 and humidity levels will also be high. Such conditions are conducive for forest fires. Though we cannot be definite, the main cause of the fire could be negligence on part of people who might have lit a fire in or near the forest area and left without dousing it properly.” The forest official said the fires had been reported from Bageshwar, Srinagar, Almora, Haridwar and Haldwani among other places. In Uttarkashi, district administration confirmed that about nine hectare of forest land had been gutted.

According to the forest department of Uttarakhand, 3399 hectares forest cover has been destroyed in 1451 forest fire incidents in the state this year. Loss of Rs 63.40 lakh had been calculated. The forests of Garhwal and Shivalik have been affected the most. A total of 2321 hectares of forest land of Garhwal and Shivalik region have been affected in 976 fire incidents this year and this has resulted in economic loss of approximately Rs 43.94 lakh. The Kumaon region has recorded a loss of Rs 17.11 lakh where 846.13 hectares of forest land has been gutted. Wildlife sanctuaries have been burnt too. 125.13 hectares of reserved forest has been burnt leading to a loss of Rs 23,000 lakh. A majority of blazes was reported from Pauri Garhwal (579) Almora (186) Uttarkashi (163). To combat these losses the forest department has released Rs 12.5 crore from the state budget and Rs 1.75 crore from CAMPA. The affected districts in Garhwal region are Haridwar, Uttarkashi, Tehri Garhwal, Pauri Garhwal, Rudraprayag, and Chamoli. Kumaun region - Nainital, Bageshwar, Champawat, Almora.

“While forest fires are as old as the forests themselves, there is a fair degree of human involvement in causing a forest to rage on through day and night. It is not yet clear what exactly caused the forest fire, wildfires may be caused by different factors like natural causes, including lightning, but 99% of the fires in the forests are man-made. It could have been any of the following: Attempts to encroach upon forest lands, renewal of pastures or regain agricultural land at the expense of forests, fire caused by poachers and timber smugglers to destroy evidence of illegal activities or merely fire by miscreants or burning of waste in illegal dumps. It could have been the act of the locals, those living on the edges of the forest, who set fire in order that there may be growth of fresh grass for their cattle, or to shift cultivation patterns on the hills, and also, as a means to hoodwink forest officials. It could have also easily been any of these: A smoldering fire, not stamped out properly, leftover by travellers, campers and picnickers, and a spark that has escaped from a deliberate one on agricultural lands or from controlled burning elsewhere,” informed Preeti Goswami, environment worker who has being organizing wildfire awareness camps in the villages of Almora and other districts of Uttarakhand to sensitize villagers. But irrespective of the cause, every fire is an emergency, even a minor one. While fires rage in forests every summer and are controlled from spreading too far by forest officials, mostly earnest efforts start once the fire begins to bother the locals and it is already too late, she added. The forest fires are also threatening the tiger reserves.

Meanwhile, head of forest force Jai Raj, said: “We are trying to control the situation. Sufficient funds have been allotted to the concerned wings for dousing fire incidents on top priority. Most of these fires are man-made, which are caused due to the carelessness of people who throw half-lit cigarette or beedi stubs in the bushes. Villagers also believe that burning bushes will lead to more plantations during the rains which results in such fires.” In January this year, a forest fire was reported in Uttarakhand but controlled, he added.

Meanwhile, a huge forest fire broke in the Trikuta Hills and the annual pilgrimage to the Mata Vaishno Devi Shrine had to be suspended. Officials said the passage to the shrine would only be permitted after the blaze was completely put out to ensure safety of the pilgrims.

Is timber mafia-forest corporation nexus causing so many fires?

The forest department may be blaming the ‘people’, but some locals and environmentalists have a different take: They hint at a nexus between the timber mafia and the Forest Development Corporation, the body with the authority to sell trees which are dead or have dried up via auction. They claim every year forests are burnt by local land and timber mafia to get a nod for some development project that would otherwise not get environmental clearance. With the forests gone, it gets easier to manipulate. The trees felled also fetch them crores of rupees. On condition of anonymity, a forest official claimed minors are brainwashed and paid to light these fires as they cannot be punished. In many areas, the forest department is aware and hand-in-glove with the mafia.

If one went by the number of alerts sent to the Uttarakhand forest department by Forest Survey of India (FSI) that went unnoticed, this theory does seem credible. According to the FSI, Uttarakhand received 3,000 forest fire alerts in May, which is 10 times the number it recorded last year and at least three times more than what neighbouring Himachal Pradesh has received in the corresponding period. However, the forest department says there usually is a wide gap between the number of fire alerts and the number of actual incidents as the ultra sensitive thermal sensors of satellites record every fire related occurrence in their area as forest fire, so the real picture will immerge only after spot verification.

Locals getting chocked by smog

Locals claimed fires had been raging in different parts of the forest area in Uttarakhand's Srinagar for the past several days, but no timely action had been taken by the administration despite being informed. Now people were facing difficulty in breathing due to the smoke. The forest department admitted that their efforts were being hindered by insufficient resources and manpower, like limited vehicles and equipment necessary to tackle forest fires. “Over 75 hectares of the jungle has been burned down, but we do not have enough equipment to deal with the fire. With only a team of nine, we are grossly understaffed to handle the situation,” Srinagar Forest Ranger Narendra Singh told mediapersons. Out of the two MI-17 helicopters pressed into service by government, one chopper flew several sorties in Nainital district sprinkling water lifted from a lake to douse the raging forest fires, but the second one was, however, prevented from being deployed in Pauri district due to low visibility. Forest officials also state that since most of the wildfires are seen at great heights it becomes difficult to control them.

NGT had asked to form proper guidelines

It may be mentioned here that in June 2017, the National Green Tribunal (NGT) had directed the Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh governments to submit the national forest fire prevention and control guidelines. A bench headed by NGT Chairperson Justice Swatanter Kumar had also asked both the state governments to inform about the total number of forest fires till date starting from 2016. In Himachal Pradesh during 2016-17, there were 1,545 forest fires which affected 13,069 hectare causing loss of Rs 1.53 crore, whereas, in 2015-16, there were 672 fire incidents which caused harm in 5,749.95 hectare area causing loss of Rs 1.34 crore. The tribunal had earlier directed the states to submit crisis management plan for prevention and control of forest fires to the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF). It had taken exception to the fact that that the issue of management plan was pending since 2010 and directed the MoEF to file the details of states which have not submitted the management plan on forest fires. Voicing concern over forest fires raging in Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh, the tribunal had said it was shocked that everybody was taking the issue “so casually” and issued show cause notices to both the states.

Earlier, in December 2016, the Nainital high court had also passed an order that included the provision that the forest officials would have to take full responsibility for forest fires; if the fire was not put out within 24 hours, the DFO should be suspended and if it went uncontrolled for 48 hours, the conservator of forest should be suspended, but if it raged for 72 hours and more, the PCCF should be suspended and disciplinary action initiated against them. However, this order was challenged in Supreme Court and the Apex Court stayed the Nainital High Court order on the ground that it was ‘good’ but ‘impractical’.

What exactly is the ‘fire season’?

The latest India State of Forest Report (ISFR) 2017 defines ‘fire season’ as the season of the year when the weather conditions favour forest fires. “For obvious reasons, it coincides with summer months in most parts of the country, except for the pastures in high Himalayas which are burnt during the dry winter season. The onset of this season can vary across regions depending on various local factors including drought, but the advancing monsoon rains invariably mark the close of the fire season. A better understanding of the regional variations of fires can help foresters in improving preparedness by devising specific strategies suited for local conditions,” the report says. The ISFR 2017 also points out: “While it is important to timely detect forest fire for taking remedial measures, it is equally important to assess forest area affected by the forest fires to assess damage to forest and biodiversity as well as to plan restoration measures.”

In 2016, Forest Survey of India developed an indigenous ‘pre-warning alert system’. The alerts to state forest departments are based on parameters like forest cover, forest type, climate variables (temperature and rainfall) and recent fire incidents over the area. Three satellites — SNPP (Suomi National Polar Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite), VIIRS (Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite) and MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrodiometer) — initiate the fire alerts. The three satellites make two passes each between 10.30 am-2pm and 10.30 pm-2 am. Together the alerts generated are through six passes in 24 hours. These alerts are based on short-term weather variables and communicated to the nodal officer of state forest departments via email. However, despite a repeated annual pattern and timely alerts, what keeps the concerned department so lackadaisical when it comes to taking preventing measures is worth a thought! 

Worst wildfires till date

-One of the largest forest fires in the history happened in 1825 in Canada, which burnt 3 million acres of forest.

-The Thomas fire which occurred in December 2017 in Southern California burned down 2.8 lakh acres of forest and is another largest wildfire in the modern history.

Forest fires in India

-Bandipur forest fire in 2017 destroyed more than 1000 hectares and also claimed the life of a forest guard.

-In 2016 the dreadful Uttarakhand forest fire brought 4000 hectares of forest to ashes and claimed seven lives.

-The recent Theni Forest fire in Tamil Nadu, on March 23, 2018 claimed 20 lives and severely injured many.

-In Navi Mumbai also, two major forest fires were reported in Kharghar and Belapur, ironically within 48 hours of the Earth Day celebrations this year. While the first fire was observed atop Kharghar hill, the second fire broke out the next evening at Parsik Hills in Belapur CBD.

-In India, the Himalayan region, dry forests in Andhra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha are most affected by these fires. Wildfires occur naturally in areas of dry vegetation. Wildfire is also known as bushfire, desert fire or forest fire depending on the area in which it occurs. Generally, the naturally occurring forest fires are a part of nature’s eco-system. The real problem is, they are most often man-made

‘Fire Triangle’ & other facts you should know

-Everything has a temperature at which it will burst into flames. This temperature is called a material's flash point. Wood's flash point is 572 degrees Fahre-nheit (300 C). When wood is heated to this temperature, it releases hydrocarbon gases that mix with oxygen in the air, combust and create fire.

-There are three components needed for ignition and combustion to occur. A fire requires fuel -to burn, air to supply oxygen, and a heat source to bring the fuel up to ignition temperature. Heat, oxygen and fuel form the ‘fire triangle’. Fire-fighters often talk about the fire triangle when they are trying to put out a blaze. The idea is that if they can take away any one of the pillars of the triangle, they can control and ultimately extinguish the fire.

-After combustion occurs and a fire begins to burn, there are several factors that determine how the fire spreads. These three factors include fuel, weather and topography. Depending on these factors, a fire can quickly fizzle or turn into a raging blaze that scorches thousands of acres.

-Wildfires spread based on the type and quantity of fuel that surrounds it. Fuel can include everything from trees, underbrush and dry grassy fields to homes. The amount of flammable material that surrounds a fire is referred to as the fuel load. Fuel load is measured by the amount of available fuel per unit area, usually tons per acre.

-A small fuel load will cause a fire to burn and spread slowly, with a low intensity. If there is a lot of fuel, the fire will burn more intensely, causing it to spread faster. The faster it heats up the material around it, the faster those materials can ignite. The dryness of the fuel can also affect the behavior of the fire. When the fuel is very dry, it is consumed much faster and creates a fire that is much more difficult to contain.

-Here are the basic fuel characteristics that decide how it affects a fire: Size and shape; Arrangement; Moisture content. Small fuel materials, also called flashy fuels, such as dry grass, pine needles, dry leaves, twigs and other dead brush, burn faster than large logs or stumps (this is why you start a fire with kindling rather than logs). On a chemical level, different fuel materials take longer to ignite than others. But in a wildfire, where most of the fuel is made of the same sort of material, the main variable in ignition time is the ratio of the fuel's total surface area to its volume. Since a twig's surface area is not much larger than its volume, it ignites quickly. By comparison, a tree's surface area is much smaller than its volume, so it needs more time to heat up before it ignites. As the fire progresses, it dries out the material just beyond it -- heat and smoke approaching potential fuel causes the fuel's moisture to evaporate. This makes the fuel easier to ignite when the fire finally reaches it. Fuels that are somewhat spaced out will also dry out faster than fuels that are packed tightly together, because more oxygen is available to the thinned-out fuel. More tightly-packed fuels also retain more moisture, which absorbs the fire's heat.

-Weather plays a major role in the birth, growth and death of a wildfire. Drought leads to extremely favorable conditions for wildfires, and winds aid a wildfire's progress. Weather can spur the fire to move faster and engulf more land. It can also make the job of fighting the fire even more difficult. There are three weather ingredients that can affect wildfires: Temperature;  Wind; Moisture

-As mentioned before, temperature affects the sparking of wildfires, because heat is one of the three pillars of the fire triangle. The sticks, trees and underbrush on the ground receive radiant heat from the sun, which heats and dries potential fuels. Warmer temperatures allow for fuels to ignite and burn faster, adding to the rate at which a wildfire spreads. For this reason, wildfires tend to rage in the afternoon, when temperatures are at their hottest.

-Wind probably has the biggest impact on a wildfire's behavior. It also is the most unpredictable factor. Winds supply the fire with additional oxygen, further dry potential fuel and push the fire across the land at a faster rate.

- Not only does wind affect how the fire develops, but that fires themselves can develop wind patterns. When the fire creates its own weather patterns, they can feed back into how the fire spreads. Large, violent wildfires can generate winds, called fire whirls. Fire whirls, which are like tornadoes, result from the vortices created by the fire's heat. When these vortices are tilted from horizontal to vertical, you get fire whirls. Fire whirls have been known to hurl flaming logs and burning debris over considerable distances. The stronger the wind blows, the faster the fire spreads. The fire generates winds of its own that are as many as 10 times faster than the ambient wind. It can even throw embers into the air and create additional fires, an occurrence called spotting. Wind can also change the direction of the fire, and gusts can raise the fire into the trees, creating a crown fire.

-While wind can help the fire to spread, moisture works against the fire. Moisture, in the form of humidity and precipitation, can slow the fire down and reduce its intensity. Potential fuels can be hard to ignite if they have high levels of moisture, because the moisture absorbs the fire's heat. When the humidity is low, meaning that there is a low amount of water vapor in the air, wildfires are more likely to start. The higher the humidity, the less likely the fuel is to dry and ignite.

-Since moisture can lower the chances of a wildfire igniting, precipitation has a direct impact on fire prevention. When the air becomes saturated with moisture, it releases the moisture in the form of rain. Rain and other precipitation raise the amount of moisture in fuels, which suppresses any potential wildfires from breaking out.

-The third big influence on wildfire behavior is the lay of the land, or topography. Although it remains virtually unchanged, unlike fuel and weather, topography can either aid or hinder wildfire progression. The most important factor in topography as it relates to wildfire is slope. Unlike humans, fires usually travel uphill much faster than downhill. The steeper the slope, the faster the fire travels. Fires travel in the direction of the ambient wind, which usually flows uphill. Additionally, the fire is able to preheat the fuel further up the hill because the smoke and heat are rising in that direction. Conversely, once the fire has reached the top of a hill, it must struggle to come back down because it is not able to preheat the downhill fuel as well as the uphill.

-In addition to the damage that fires cause as they burn, they can also leave behind disastrous problems, the effects of which might not be felt for months after the fire burns out. When fires destroy all the vegetation on a hill or mountain, it can also weaken the organic material in the soil and prevent water from penetrating the soil. One problem that results from this is extremely dangerous erosion that can lead to debris flows.

Difficulties in putting out forest fires

There are several classifications to a forest fire. One set of classification occurs when a forest fire enters the “combustion stage.” The fire may be classified as a smoldering fire, flaming combustion or glowing combustion. Forest fires may also be classified according to which particular part of the forest is on fire. A ground fire occurs on the ground beneath leaves, while a surface fire occurs on the ground surface and can extend up to three meters high. A crown fire, the most dangerous, occurs all the way into the tops of trees, is the fastest spreading and most difficult to extinguish. It is even possible for more than one type of fire to burn at the same time.

Jai Raj claimed that forest fires of Uttarakhand were ground level fires and not as destructive as forest fires in the US or Canada where whole trees get burnt. “In Uttarakhand, these fires mostly engulf bushes and not entire trees. However, these forest fires exude a lot of carbon dioxide in the form of smoke and that is definitely a cause of worry.”

Being able to actually get firefighters transported to the areas where they can successfully fight the fire can be time-consuming and dangerous. Once a fire has spread, it can be even more dangerous for firefighters. Superintendent of Police (SP) Champawat, Dhirendra Gunjiyal said: “The fire is reported deep into the forest where our vehicles can’t go. Also, because of heavy smoke the staff and police are unable to trace the exact spot.” Sprinkling water by helicopters may work on small fires, but the truth is, it is only waste of resources and fire can be effectively put out once it rains. So, in order to ‘control’ forest fire, the main mantra is ‘prevention’.

The affect on biodiversity

Forests fires have the tendency to change wildlife habitats. In the immediate aftermath of fire, there can be a temporary loss of food and shelter, causing displacement of territorial birds and mammals, upsetting the ecological balance. The following are some ways in which plants, animals and water are affected by wildfires:

- Animal predators see wildfire areas as an opportunity for food: Rodents seek shelter from the flames by burrowing into the ground, taking cover in logs or hiding under rocks. Once the fire cools, they emerge and, with less places to hide making them easy targets for predators. Raptors will hunt at the edge of fires, so as the rodents are scampering away from the flames, they kind of are flushed out. The hunting is not as active while the fire is still burning because most critters are escaping or seeking shelter. However, right after a fire has been extinguished or controlled, the area becomes a ‘happy hunting grounds’ for predators.

- Most animals do not wait till the flames start to seek shelter or escape the forest: Rodents will burrow down into their hole in the ground or some of them actually will burrow into big, down logs that even though they are dead and dry on the outside, they can be very moist on the inside. Large game typically try to scurry away from the fire while birds try to fly away. Smoke, heat and/or noise associated with fires can be signals for animals to get out of harm’s way.

- Young and small animals are particularly at risk in wildfires: Often the strategies animals have in place to escape the flames do not work, especially for young and small animals. They may not be able to find shelter or run fast enough to escape the flames. Those few who do survive fires usually have prolific reproduction.

- Bodies of water such as streams and rivers that flow through a fire burned area can be altered. Impacts from wildfires can be detrimental to aquatic species. Fires can make the streams warmer which is not good for fish. Changes to the water flow or volume of the water can also occur from wildfires. Fires can increase volume of water because more is running off the slope or through the soil instead of being drawn up by plants. As a result, debris will flow or landslides can occur and these may alter the course of a stream. Following wildfires, harmful sediment can also enter into streams along with any runoff. However, some of the sediment that infiltrates the water is filled with nutrients for insects, which in turn becomes great food for fish and plants.

- There are many plant species that need fires to occur as it is part of their life history. Fire-dependent species such as the giant sequoia and lodgepole and jack pine rely of fires in order to reproduce. A giant sequoia has the tiniest little seed that will only take root and grow in the ash layer of a fresh fire. It needs the other plants to be cleared out of its way for it to grow. The ash contains many rich nutrients and when mixed with water can help a new generation of giant sequoia to grow. Lodgepole and jack pine use the heat from the flames to melt away the wax that holds their cones closed. This will open up the cones and the seeds will fall into the fresh ash, where they are able to take root without much competition, according to Stephen J. Pyne, author of the ‘Cycle of Fire’.

Experts warn of faster melting of glaciers

According to experts at Nainital’s Aryabhatta Research Institute for Observational Sciences (ARIES) and Govind Ballabh Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development (GBPIHED) in Almora, ‘black carbon’ from smog and ash is covering the glaciers, thereby making them prone to melting. Elaborating on what he termed a ‘long lasting effect’ of the fires, Manish Kumar, a senior scientist at the atmospherics department in ARIES, informed: “Black carbon is formed by the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels, biofuels and biomass. It absorbs light and increases heat, which is why it can cause glaciers to melt faster.” Water in the rivers which originate from these glaciers also stands to get heavily polluted by harmful particles and compounds that constitute black carbon, Kumar said. According to experts, forest fires have already resulted in a jump of 0.2 degrees Celsius in temperatures across northern India which can have a detrimental effect on the monsoons. “Black carbon floats in air for a long time and gets deposited on clouds interfering with the normal cycle of the monsoons,” said Kirit Kumar, a scientist from Govind Ballabh Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development, Almora. Other experts, however, said the interaction of black carbon with clouds was complex and could have varied effects. The glaciers which are most at risk are those situated at relatively low altitudes such as Gangotri, Milam, Sundardunga, Newla and Cheepa, which are also the source of many rivers. In order to study the effect that the fires are having on these glaciers, a team of scientists from GBPIHED would soon undertake a scientific trip to these heights. Pointing out why the scientific community was getting increasingly concerned as the fires have kept on raging in the forests, Kirit Kumar said, “In normal circumstances, glaciers act as mirrors reflecting most of the light and heat. This is known as ‘albedo’. But when black carbon gets deposited on them, it results in their absorbing all the light and heat which eventually results in their meltdown. This is a serious concern.”

How weather is affected by forest fires

While climate changes can affect the health of forests, sometimes the climate changes as a result of forest fires. While drought conditions can increase the likelihood of the occurrence of a forest fire, the after-affects from forest fires are producing climate change. The quick release of large amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere is largely responsible. Research has shown that an upward trend in temperatures in some regions, with earlier spring weather and longer, drier summer weather. With climate change and the cycle of weather patterns affecting the incidence of forest fires and the fires then affecting local weather patterns and pollution, experts are taking a look at how to better manage forest fires.  Not only that, but when forests are severely damaged by wildfires, soil in areas devastated by forest fires becomes water repellant and “no vegetation remains to hold the soil in place and the ground can no longer absorb water.” When it subsequently rains or snows, the soil can erode and runoff may pollute rivers and streams, harming wildlife and fish. Public water supplies may also be adversely affected. When forest areas that are not quickly replanted remain hot and dry, there is the possibility that another fire can occur when the temperature heats up and dry leaves catch fire, lightening strikes or people passing by drop a lighted cigarette or are careless in other ways that could cause the extremely dry forest area to burn again.

Research says wildfires cause water contamination

The recent Thomas Fire in California was the largest wildfire in the state's modern history. It scorched nearly 282,000 acres between December 2017 and January 2018, and serves as a reminder of how devastating such events can be. Now, researchers report that wildfires in forested watersheds can have a variable but predictable impact on the substances that are released from soils and flow into drinking water sources. The new research provides important insights for water utilities evaluating treatment options after severe wildfires. “Wildfires can have dramatic effects on watersheds, in addition to destroying personal property,” Fernando L Rosario-Ortiz, PhD says. “But perhaps less obvious are their potential effects on drinking water sources, caused by altering soils and the fundamental processes of forested watersheds. We find that these fires can cause many substances to be released from soil into drinking water sources, leading to contamination. The nature and amount of the substances depend on the severity of the fire.”

Forested watersheds supply nearly two-thirds of the US drinking water sources and billions of consumers worldwide, according to the National Research Council. Healthy urban and rural forested watersheds absorb rainfall and snow melt, slow storm runoff, filter pollutants and provide critical habitats for fish and wildlife. In addition, forested watersheds provide recreational opportunities and help support local economies. Following a wildfire, significant changes can occur in source water quality, which can impact water treatment processes. These changes include enhanced mobilization of nutrients, sediments and dissolved organic carbon (DOC), which can impact the ability of drinking water utilities to produce water that meets Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) standards. Utilities need accurate information regarding these impacts and how to respond to them.

Rosario-Ortiz and his team at the University of Colorado, Boulder have been studying the relationship between soil transformation and wildfires since 2012, when two wildfires burned the Upper Cache la Poudre River watershed in northern Colorado. The team simulated wildfires of different severities in the laboratory by heating soils to different temperatures and then analyzed the results. “Up to a point, the warmer the soil gets, the more carbon and nitrogen containing compounds are released from soils,” Rosario-Ortiz says. “These compounds, which are generally characterized as DOC, can react with chemicals used to purify water and be transformed into disinfection byproducts, or DBPs, which you don't want in drinking water.” In fact, the level of permissible DPBs is regulated by EPA. “But we were surprised to find that as a wildfire increases in severity, the amount of DOC released by the soil decreases, and instead you could end up with more sediments in the source waters,” Rosario-Ortiz says. Now his team is studying how the release of organic compounds from soil into water changes during wildfires. “We found that there is an enhanced release of compounds with a lower average molecular weight, containing both more oxygen and nitrogen functionalities, compared with typical conditions," Rosario-Ortiz reports. "The results from this work will help us better understand the overall effects that wildfires have on water quality and ultimately on the production of potable water.”

How to prevent forest fires?

- Educate people and create awareness about forest fires

- Fire detection system and watchtowers and network for communication

- Patrolling by the forest department

-Strict approvals and warnings for those using the forest for adventure activities

It is important for the authorities to implement fire safety precautions. Awareness is the best way to prevent fires.

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