Exploring the Origins of Western Philosophy Before Socrates

Even today, a conversation about Western philosophy usually begins with Socrates . His approach to teaching, philosophical inquiries, and humour all survived him to become the pillar of intellectual discourse even twenty-five hundred years after he lived. It's hard to believe, considering that Socrates never put pen to paper, and all we know about him comes from accounts written by others. In future pieces, I want to investigate the mysterious Socrates, the setting of his views, the geopolitical context, his notorious trial, and his illustrious followers. But before we dig into the famous triumvirate of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, we must comprehend the background of philosophy that came before them and realise how it may have inspired them. To that end, I'd like to take you on a voyage of the foundational thinkers and schools that gave rise to Western philosophy.

A tricky question needs answering before we can go on to pre-Socratic philosophy, which predominantly originated in the fifth and sixth centuries BC. For example, why not start with Egyptian or Mesopotamian philosophy, which appeared far earlier than pre-Socrates? Especially when, even before 3000 BC, people in ancient Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, and later Persia recorded their thoughts on fundamental questions like the nature of the universe and the nature of good and evil. Also, there is evidence of a widespread democratic cultural tradition among the ancient Greeks that valued free thought, skepticism of authority, and debate among equals.

The answer lies in the deeper considerations of time, place, and language, which form the basis of the exclusion. The intellectual traditions of Mesopotamia and Egypt were significant contributors to human knowledge and development. Still, they were distinct from the Western conception of philosophy. Linguistically, Cuneiform and hieroglyphics , the writing systems used to preserve the philosophical concepts of ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt, respectively, provide unique obstacles to modern readers. However, Greek philosophical writings could reach a larger audience and remain in print because they were translated into other languages. Mesopotamia and Egypt existed in a cultural setting different from that of ancient Greece. Unlike Greek philosophy, which developed methodically and abstractly, Mesopotamian and Egyptian thinking embraced various subjects, from religion and law to practical knowledge.

Further, the stress on logical inquiry, critical thinking, and philosophical technique that marked the emergence of Western philosophy in ancient Greece persist to this day. The ancient Greek philosophers looked for rational explanations for the world around them and the rules governing human life, ethics, and knowledge acquisition. The early Greek philosophers were methodical and self-critical. Still, ancient Mesopotamian and Egyptian societies had their own belief systems, mythologies, and wisdom traditions. The philosophical traditions of the West owe a great deal to the Greeks, who brought a new style of thinking that placed a premium on inquiry, logic, and critical analysis.

When we talk about the historical evolution of philosophical concepts, we generally refer to the Western tradition as a whole. The intellectual landscape of Europe and its colonial descendants was shaped by the contributions of the ancient Greeks and the philosophical rules that grew from them. Although Mesopotamian and Egyptian cultures produced essential contributions to a wide range of disciplines, including mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and literature, the philosophical discourse that arose in ancient Greece has disproportionately affected the development of Western thought. This is not to say that the intellectual accomplishments of Mesopotamia and Egypt are less valuable; instead, it is to say that the Western philosophical canon has a different historical background and way of categorising philosophical traditions. To sum up, the development of Western philosophy in ancient Greece can be traced back to several factors, including the availability of a common language, the diversity of ancient Greek culture, and the emphasis on logical inquiry and philosophical technique. Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia contributed significantly to Western thought, yet these cultures had different systematic philosophical approaches.

Having established the reasons for excluding Egyptian and Mesopotamian philosophy from our discourse, let us delve into pre-Socratic philosophers and their central tenets of philosophy.?

The Quest for the Fundamental Principles:?Pre-Socratics were primarily concerned with understanding the basic principles underlying the natural world. They sought to uncover the fundamental substance or element from which all things originate. Thales of Miletus , often considered the first philosopher, proposed that water was the primordial element. Anaximander , his successor, postulated the concept of the "Apeiron " or the boundless, an eternal substance from which all things arise and to which they eventually return.

"The most difficult thing in life is to know yourself." - Thales of Miletus.

Parmenides challenged the idea of change and asserted that reality is timeless and unchanging. On the other hand, Heraclitus argued that change is the fundamental nature of the universe, famously stating that "you cannot step into the same river twice." These early philosophers paved the way for later metaphysical inquiries and debates about the nature of existence.

Cosmology and the Nature of the Universe:?The Pre-Socratics pondered existential questions, such as what the cosmos is made of. According to Anaximander's cosmological hypothesis, the cosmos was born out of the limitless and unknowable Apeiron (Greek for "infinite"). Anaximenes , one of his students, proposed that air was the fundamental material from which all others were formed by condensation and rarefaction.

"Out of the infinite, the worlds are generated and pass away." - Anaximander.

The famous mathematician and mystic Pythagoras thought the world was harmonious and ordered, with numbers and geometric shapes as essential building blocks. Meanwhile, Empedocles conceptualised earth, air, fire, and water, postulating that the interaction between these four elements produced the attributes and changes of all things.

"Love is the force that brings things together." - Empedocles.

Ethics and the Search for Virtue:?Most Pre-Socratic thinkers pondered cosmic and metaphysical issues, but some explored moral dilemmas. For example, Pythagoras believed that a life of virtue was the route to happiness. Soul reincarnation and the value of introspective self-control were central to his worldview.

"As long as man continues to be the ruthless destroyer of lower living beings, he will never know health or peace." - Pythagoras.

Although Parmenides made ethical statements, he is most recognised for his philosophical theories. He maintained that humans should be guided by reason and the pursuit of truth since this is consistent with the nature of the cosmos. These first ethical reflections paved the way for more elaborate moral ideas by subsequent thinkers like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle.

"For never shall this prevail, that things that are not, are, or that what is not, shall be." - Parmenides.

The Problem of Knowledge and Epistemology:?The Pre-Socratics debated the scope and boundaries of human understanding. Xenophanes was a Greek philosopher and opponent of the anthropomorphism that permeated much of Greek religion. He also acknowledged the fallibility of human perception and emphasised the need for sceptical inquiry. Parmenides advocated a rationalist position, saying that reason and argument were the only way to get to the truth. On the other hand, Heraclitus stressed the importance of sensory experience in learning about the universe. These early epistemological arguments paved the way for subsequent philosophers to investigate the nature of knowing and its connection to the senses and the mind.

"No man ever steps in the same river twice, for it's not the same river, and he's not the same man." - Heraclitus.

The Legacy of Pre-Socratic Thought:?Even though the Pre-Socratics failed to leave behind any substantial canonical writings, their ideas were retained and expanded upon by the likes of Plato and Aristotle. Many Pre-Socratic ideas may be found throughout Plato's dialogues. Aristotle analysed their ideas closely and used them as a foundation for his philosophical system.

Pre-Socratic philosophers applied logic to describe the cosmos. Intuitively, the pre-Socratic thinkers agreed that the gods' activities could not account for the universe's diversity and uniqueness. The pre-Socratics were the first to engage in analytical and critical reasoning by rejecting the mythical explanations for what they saw in favour of more reasonable grounds. Their research aimed to learn what underlies and defines the more expansive universe. Many people were interested in discovering how things started and ceased to exist. They looked for natural principles in action in the cosmos and human society, emphasising the logical unity of things and rejecting supernatural explanations. The pre-Socratics conceptualised the universe as a cosmos, an orderly arrangement open to investigation and resolution. They devised ideas like rhythm, symmetry, analogy, deduction, reduction, and the "mathematisation of nature" to make sense of the universe.?

Furthermore, the Pre-Socratics' emphasis on reason, empirical observation, and critical thinking laid the groundwork for the scientific method, which would emerge centuries later. Their intellectual curiosity and courage to challenge prevailing beliefs set the stage for the philosophical revolutions shaping Western thought in the centuries to come.

The Pre-Socratics' inquiries into the fundamental nature of reality, the cosmos, ethics, and knowledge were groundbreaking and laid the foundation for Western philosophy. Their ideas and debates paved the way for later philosophical developments, shaping intellectual history. By exploring the roots of rational inquiry, the Pre-Socratics ignited a philosophical tradition that continues to thrive and evolve to this day, making their contributions invaluable to the development of human thought. Hence, their seminal contribution to Western philosophical traditions cannot be ruled out, even if we credit Socrates as the Father of philosophy or the first philosopher of the Western tradition.