Exploring Architectural Features in Interactive Learning Space Design
Afarin Amirhassankhani
Architectural Engineer | Language Teacher | Bridging Creativity, Communication, and Tech
1.?Bachelor of Architectural Engineering, Islamic Azad University, Mashhad, Iran
2.?Master of Architecture, Wismar University, Wismar, Germany
Abstract
Education and training development are among the most important topics globally. Learning starts from the first second of existence and continues until the last second of life. Research indicates that the critical age for shaping 70-80% of human personality is between 0-8 years old. Kindergarten, entered mostly at ages 2-3, is the first educational community. Many countries have undervalued education during these years; however, in recent years, there has been improvement, though the focus is mostly on programs and what should be taught rather than on designing a proper space for learning. Iran, a developing country, recognizes the strategic importance of strengthening its educational system. The history of education in Iran dates back to ancient times and the first Aryans when kindergarten was not defined as the most important or even an important stage of education. With recent efforts focusing on defining Kindergarten as a crucial stage, the government is working to plan infrastructure for educational spaces and programs in kindergartens. Proper educational spaces and facilities are as crucial as teaching and defined programs. The learning process will improve after children connect with space and facilities. Architects play a significant role in designing spaces for optimal academic and social achievement, bringing culture, humanity, psychology, and art together through form. The research addresses the importance and necessity of this subject.
Keywords: Architecture, Design, Kindergarten, Education, Space, Psychology
1. Introduction
Education is the most powerful and universally valuable key in our world. The understanding of its significance typically begins in our early years, motivating us to become literate and step into adulthood.
Growing up, we realize that education isn't just about reading and writing; it's a fundamental force steering life's journey. Beyond basic literacy, scientists and psychologists emphasize education as the most effective tool in shaping healthy personalities in future generations. The acquisition of diverse knowledge and life skills contributes to individuals who are not just informed but also possess the wisdom to navigate life effectively.
The transformative power of education extends beyond personal development; it holds the capacity to shape not only individual purposes but also the fabric of societies and the global landscape. In essence, education emerges as a multifaceted influencer with far-reaching effects on individuals as well as their roles within society and the world. Here are some of these factors:
In essence, education is similar to a guiding light in the darkness, forming the foundational base for human development. Recognized as a basic right for every individual, proper education is essential for success, much like the essential sustenance required for a healthy body. Starting in childhood and extending throughout one's life, education is a lifelong process that concludes with death.
2. Statement of the Problem and the Necessity of Addressing the Issue
According to the law, kids everywhere are mandated to attend schools, which follow a standardized structure. Given the considerable effort and expenses invested by society to establish these schools, it leads us to wonder if there's a good reason for it all.
We usually think that making school attendance mandatory and sticking to the usual system is the way to turn kids into capable adults. There's a possibility that highly intelligent individuals have explored and validated this idea. Conversely, they might have experimented with alternative approaches to child development and education, encountering challenges along the way. Consequently, they have deemed this system as the most effective.
It's important to have an education system that can adapt over time. Defining a suitable educational platform, and guiding the correct orientation of the system, represents a critical stage in achieving this goal.
Consider the Sudbury Valley School, a place where kids have been learning on their own for 40 years, doing things a bit differently from regular schools. Research from the school and its graduates shows that kids can learn just fine without adults pushing them, growing up to be successful adults in the community. Sudbury Valley gives them a cool space to play, explore, and experience democracy hands-on, all at a lower cost and with less hassle than regular schools. Makes you wonder why more schools aren't following their lead.
3. Research Objectives
4. Research Methodology
5. Kindergarten
5.1. Definition of Kindergarten
Kindergarten is a nurturing space dedicated to caring for children, recognizing their talents, and fostering emotional, physical, intellectual, and behavioral development. The primary emphasis lies in fostering children's creativity throughout the preschool period. This period can be analyzed across six key segments: (Table 1) [1]
5.2. History of Kindergarten in Iran
Girls were primarily educated by women, while boys were taught by men. The historical timeline of educational developments in Iran is as follows:
6. Architecture of Kindergarten
6.1. Architecture and Education
Across countries and continents, spirited debates revolve around the content and methodologies employed in education. However, amidst these discussions, the question of the physical learning environment often remains overlooked. Does this aspect of educational discourse deserve more attention? Perhaps so, and should we rectify this oversight? Recent academic research asserts the affirmative, revealing the substantial impact of the learning environment on the quality of education.
In the United Kingdom, the Holistic Evidence and Design (HEAD) study provides compelling insights. Analyzing 3766 children in 137 classrooms across 27 diverse primary schools, this research establishes that 16 percent of the variation in children's learning capabilities can be attributed to the physical characteristics of their learning spaces. This statistic underscores the paramount importance of the learning environment. [2] As visionary educator Loris Malaguzzi astutely recognized, the classroom is not just a physical space; it is the third teacher, standing alongside the pupils and educators.
The overarching objective should be the creation of learning spaces that nurture a sense of safety, emotional connection, and mental stimulation, thereby fostering the most conducive learning environment. Essentially, effective school design revolves around crafting informal spaces that individuals can perceive and embrace, yet remain free from rigid functional constraints. This necessitates the creation of flexible spaces capable of accommodating inevitable changes.
In educational settings, specific characteristics enhance navigation and cultivate a crucial sense of place, including features like islands, pits, or grandstands. These elements provide both orientation and a sense of domestication, triggering feelings of attachment and familiarity. Consequently, this attachment empowers children to emotionally claim ownership of the space, turning it into their haven. School design should ultimately strive to evoke a sense of homecoming. Beyond that, it endeavors not only to instill in a child a sense of home, safety, and comfort but also to foster the capacity and trust to explore new horizons, experiences, and adventures.
6.2. Architecture and Psychology
The significance of the interplay between architectural design and human psychology often goes unnoticed, both within and beyond the design industry. Moreover, the relationship between architecture and psychology is not only substantial but also reciprocal. Successful design, on the one hand, has demonstrated specific psychological and physiological impacts. On the other hand, in our definition of successful design, psychology, human experience, and the functioning of neurological systems all play a crucial role.
Architectural psychology serves as an essential tool in crafting sustainable solutions and technologies, given its comprehensive understanding of the intricate dynamics between humans and the built environment. Architects, with profound insights into human psychology, find themselves playing an increasingly intricate role.
Every psychological process and human interaction occurs in a physical environment. The architecture and interior designs shaping spaces for daily human functioning are not only products of the human psyche but also wield significant influence upon it.
The built environment affects individuals' moods, motivations, judgments, decisions, well-being, behavior, and interactions. Preferences may be neutrally or hormonally influenced, evolutionarily oriented, and/or culturally modulated for specific physical environments. Moreover, individual variations can result in distinct perceptions of the same building or space.
Scholars from diverse backgrounds, ranging from architecture and engineering to psychology and neuroscience, contribute valuable research on these intertwined subjects.
An architect's design can influence human behavior by recognizing the impact of building design on individual behavior, thereby altering mood and perception, whether in natural or man-made environments. Understanding how people influence their surroundings enables the design and development of spaces for work, leisure, and living that can affect human actions.
Numerous elements of architecture influence psychology, from enhancing productivity in an office to attracting customers and boosting sales in a retail store. A hard-working architect not only creates aesthetically pleasing environments but also cleverly designs spaces that evoke a sense of beauty within, promoting relaxation and happiness.
6.3. Role of Architects
Our adult characteristics are shaped by the intricate web of childhood interactions, profoundly influenced by the specific environments we encounter early in life. For a young boy to unlock his full potential, cultivating happiness both at home and in school is paramount. Therefore, architects, educators, and parents bear the collective responsibility of crafting environments that foster intellectual and emotional growth. [2]
Embarking on a new school project demands architects to navigate a myriad of considerations. Conflicting interests, ranging from policymakers to parents, are present while teaching methodologies continually evolve, and technology seamlessly integrates into classrooms and other learning spaces. Each decision made carries financial implications.
The design of educational institutions stands as a cornerstone in the realm of architecture, wielding profound influence throughout lives. Despite its pivotal role, this sector of architectural practice often remains overlooked, perhaps due to its perceived lack of professional glamour. Nevertheless, this publication, akin to my literary endeavors throughout the years, strives to rectify this oversight and kindle inspiration for the creation of more intelligently designed learning spaces. [2]
7. How to Approach Kindergarten Design?
The evolving landscape of educational spaces is shaped by advancing technologies. Learning environments, often the first visited by young children, should assert a central and proud presence within the community, providing a warm and nurturing atmosphere. However, the demands of 21st-century learning amplify the challenge of unifying these elements. Architects design spaces distinct from their personal learning experiences, creating settings for emerging practices not fully developed or conceived. The dynamic demands of these spaces are consistently modified by the integration of new technologies.
In tandem with architects adapting to the modern world, students and teachers need to acquire new skills. Engaging the entire school community requires exploring novel approaches. Global learning experiences confirm that educational space design is shaped by pedagogy, curriculum, culture, staffing, design, and politics. School designs resist a one-size-fits-all approach, demanding adaptation to the unique ethos and context of each institution. Despite this diversity, a consistent design element prevails, offering a diverse array of spaces with enhanced flexibility for teachers and students to shape their methods of teaching and learning.
The strategic configuration of spaces contributes to progress, fostering collaborative and innovative learning. It empowers students to shape their environment, enabling school communities to deliver curriculum in new ways. At the core of the design process lies observation. Designers must carefully examine the utilization of spaces and resources, exploring how a shift in spatial structure could enhance the learning experience and unveil new possibilities.
Deliberating on the learning environment for both students and teachers will empower and cultivate improvements within the school. Recognizing that change is a gradual process, the transition must be gentle, allowing the school community adequate time to adapt. In the design of new spaces, architects act as collaborators, promoting dialogue and challenging conventions. Their role is not to dictate an educational blueprint but to respond to the unique needs of each school. Architects should invest time not only in understanding physical constraints but also in comprehending the community and envisioning the future trajectory of the schools they engage with. It is the architect’s responsibility to conduct a thorough analysis of the site and buildings, strategically responding to constraints and transforming them into opportunities. Common constraints faced by architects include:
Key considerations for creating an optimal learning environment include:
7.1. Design for Preschool and Early Ages
Design serves as a potent psychological strategy, motivating transformative behaviors and enhancing actions. It encourages participation, imaginative practices, and play, shaping innovative learning scenarios. A school comprises three interconnected components: organization, pedagogy, and physical environment design. These elements collectively shape students' perceptions of their school's culture. This methodology, integral to global design thinking, underlines the groundwork for learning space preparation, as discussed in this book.
In progressive learning environments, incorporating all three elements is imperative. Neglecting any aspect hinders genuine cultural cultivation. Teachers should enthusiastically use the room and facilities as instructional resources, and the organization must adjust preparations and conditions for seamless daily classes.
Regrettably, school-building projects often lack a primary focus on shaping the school's atmosphere or supporting its pedagogy. New schools are designed based on corporate needs, focusing on quantitative goals, resulting in outdated models lacking conducive interiors for stimulating learning methods.
The design process should evolve from an internal perspective, focusing on what motivates and empowers both learners and educators. Despite the constant evolution of various learning methods, sustained engagement is hindered when individuals are confined to a single mode, such as sitting at a desk and receiving one-way data. Instead, each learner should have access to a diverse range of learning environments and situations that actively engage both the mind and the body. Recognizing that students' learning needs vary based on the task at hand, the time of day, and whether it involves an individual assignment, group project, or a hands-on learning activity is essential. [2]
Transforming needs into design principles:
David Thornburg, an author and futurist, defines digital learning by drawing parallels with the characteristics of a prehistoric environment, such as watering holes and campfire sites, as detailed in the book “Cyberspace Campfires: Primordial Metaphors for Learning in the 21st Century”. For architects, these characteristics serve as inspirational foundations and have been integrated into learning-oriented design methodologies, as demonstrated by the Rosen Bush studio's six design principles for learning situations:
Each principle shapes and advocates for a specific learning scenario by influencing the degree of interaction with other learners. While certain spatial principles direct and concentrate attention, others channel the children's energy.
Categorizing learning spaces:
Understanding the diverse needs and scenarios of learning empowers us to effectively design spaces conducive to learning. To create versatile and tailored learning environments, the broader spatial categories within the school must align with specific design concepts.
For instance, an open space designed with a mountaintop concept can accommodate group instruction while also serving as a venue for activities like watering hole gatherings and movement exercises at other times. Planning these spatial categories and destinations within the school should involve a nuanced approach, considering a spectrum of openness, ranging from private and semi-private to fully open spaces.
This approach introduces novel spatial configurations for corridors and transit areas, making effective use of previously unused spaces. Customizing these categories to suit the unique interests, age groups, pedagogy, and resources of learners is essential for every school. It requires an adaptation that respects local environments and practices.
By allowing spatial categories to evolve from design principles, the design process breaks away from the replication of conventional classrooms. Instead, it is an inside-out approach, intricately tailored to the specific needs of the learners.
领英推荐
Pre-school (Fostering a sense of belonging in the neighborhood):
When dealing with younger children, there are specific considerations centered around the fundamental question of 'where do I belong?' This aspect becomes particularly crucial when working with preschoolers, as they require a sense of their own space, a haven where they feel secure and at home.
Traditionally, a child's need for belonging has been met within the classroom setting, but the place where a child feels at home doesn't have to align exclusively with the classroom walls. Instead, the idea of 'neighborhoods' can be introduced, creating designated areas to which each child belongs. In these neighborhoods, everyone is welcome, fostering an environment where children can work, play, or socialize.
As children grow older, their sense of adventure expands, and the structural setup can evolve accordingly. Growing up involves exploration, yet children progress at different rates, and the desire to explore varies. Consequently, a well-designed neighborhood must cater to the diverse needs of all children. [2]
Outdoor learning in preschool:
Outdoor learning opens up a new world of possibilities, prompting the necessity of breaking down distinctions between indoor and outdoor environments. In the context of preschool children, the design concept of 'movement' emerges as a prominent aspect of outdoor learning. Open areas provide an ideal setting for activities like running, jumping, and skipping. However, outdoor environments offer additional benefits for various learning scenarios, providing space for activities such as hiding, observing, and exploring. Nestled within the diversity of nature, the 'hands-on' design concept takes on a revitalized significance, breathing new life into the learning experience. Within the diversity of nature, the 'hands-on' design concept comes alive with renewed vitality.
The outdoors serves as an open and cost-effective means to expand learning spaces. By integrating the outdoor environment into the learning atmosphere, students gain the freedom to be more innovative. Whether in reality or through their imagination, they can create, develop, and adapt their learning space.
The interior learning space should maintain a strong connection with the outdoor areas, ensuring a transition for activities to move outside when desirable. This design philosophy encourages preschool students to draw inspiration from diverse environments, fostering a mindset that promotes creative thinking in subjects such as math and language acquisition. The outdoor space, requiring minimal adjustments, can easily accommodate different climates with the addition of shades for sunny regions and shelter for colder ones, creating a versatile learning environment.
7.2. Special Spaces Design
Classroom:
An open classroom concept is optimal for a kindergarten setting, complemented by a blend of built-in fixtures and flexible furniture. This configuration facilitates an adaptable and versatile interior environment. The integration of Mobil trolleys, shelves, and equipment designed to dock around fixed elements, such as sinks or interactive displays, establishes anchor points. This thoughtful arrangement enables the effortless shaping and reconfiguration of diverse learning zones within the room. Strategic placement of acoustic absorption materials on walls can further enhance this design. This not only aids in defining specific areas but also provides safety and acoustic shielding.
Library:
Libraries have always been instrumental in fostering a personalized approach to learning. During the early years, they create imaginative and stimulating environments where individuals can explore, learn, and engage with diverse books, media, and artifacts.
The design of library and resource spaces should align with the pedagogy and desired layout of early years and primary learning environments. Instead of a single, centralized library, collaborative or shared spaces and open learning landscapes can adopt a distributed model for resource placement and quieter reading zones. Integrating enclosed or semi-enclosed spaces is now more effective, catering to small or class groups for activities such as group storytelling, individual reading, and role-play.
Some libraries catering to younger students undergo repurposing to evolve into lively social spaces, emphasizing the significance of storytelling in early learning. This transformation is facilitated by redistributing non-fiction materials and creating space for forums and dens that encourage role-play and oral storytelling within the school community.
Ensuring access to a quiet space for personal reading is crucial for younger learners, allowing them flexibility in how they relax, read, and access tools. Additionally, dedicating a room for teachers supports collaborative activities such as group work, guided reading exercises, role-play, and presentations.
Technology:
When digital technology initially emerged, its high costs were notable, and educational institutions, particularly schools, took on the role of innovation hubs. The introduction of the Internet in various communities often began within educational settings, such as local school libraries, further education colleges, or universities. The arrangement of rooms and departments was dictated by the technological landscape of that era. Presently, digital software has become global, influencing every aspect of our activities and dominating the professional world. Consequently, it is reasonable to anticipate that the design of educational spaces should evolve to align with this dynamic environment and harness the potential offered by technology.
Designers must assess the current hardware landscape while developing strategies for integrating technology effectively. They should anticipate the inevitable incorporation of technology into every aspect of a new learning space, including learning and teaching methodologies, leadership, as well as management and administration processes and frameworks.
As designers, the objective is not merely to showcase bold creativity but to mirror the contemporary world, opting for the “now” over conventional approaches to space, pedagogy, and culture. The starting point for creating a technology-enabled learning space should not solely revolve around the technology itself; instead, it should initiate from a foundation of pedagogy and culture.
Architects should refrain from favoring specific technologies based on personal preferences. Collaborating with stakeholders, designers should assess and communicate the effectiveness of various technologies across a range of activities and outcomes. Understanding how and why stakeholders will utilize the technology should come before considerations about which technology to integrate. Change should be propelled by learning, not by technology. [2]
Laboratories:
The defining feature of science education is the integration of experimental work to facilitate learning and actively engage students.
In addition to science education methods such as individual study, group discussions, presentations, and direct instruction, having dedicated spaces for each can contribute to creating dynamic and inspiring designs for the science suite.
Kindergarten laboratories are acknowledged as a more creative space to bring the kids' learning experiences to life. Ensuring that all facilities are secure and age-appropriate is of utmost importance. Allocating a dedicated room for the laboratory should not be overlooked. It plays an essential role in inspiring students to actively engage with various sciences that can be explored within these specialized spaces.
Art:
An arts program within schools should provide a diverse range of experiences including visual arts, design, sculpture, pottery, and creative materials, along with textile design, fostering strong interdisciplinary connections. To establish an effective design, it is imperative to clearly define the pedagogy and the expected organization of learning within schools. Within art studios, the significance of exhibiting, investigating, and discussing work cannot be overstated. Equally important is the ability to present completed projects to a broader audience, fostering public appreciation that serves as a significant source of motivation and personal reward. In all inquiry and project-based approaches, it is crucial to showcase the evolution of work and illustrate the final products, as this constitutes an integral aspect of the design process.
Music and performance:
High levels of creative activities in the school curriculum necessitate a diverse range and appropriate settings for studio-style spaces, particularly those conducive to multi-disciplinary and project-based approaches. Ensuring the optimal design and equipping of spaces dedicated to theatre, dance, drama, and music is essential to meet the specified performance requirements and standards. [2]
Music and performance have the potential to enhance critical aspects of children's intelligence, underscoring the importance of designating a dedicated space for music and performance within the kindergarten complex.
8. Architectural Space Quality Criteria
8.1. General Theoretical Foundations of Design
The architectural concept for a child's dream emphasizes creating a space with child-like features, incorporating flexibility, employing soft forms, and prioritizing a secure environment that emphasizes the child's identity. This can divide projects into two areas in terms of physical and functional considerations:
8.2. Space Quality Criteria
Organizers: The categorization of relationships among two or more spaces within the organization opens up the potential for spatial exploration, enabling the discovery of geometric and topological interconnections. This movement is based on fixed elements or distinctive centers. The following represents various types of space organization:
Below is a brief explanation of the crucial subcategories within these types: (Table 2) [3]
8.3. Light
The quantity of natural or artificial light in the environment holds practical importance as well as symbolic significance. Natural light fluctuates throughout the day, offering diverse human experiences, while artificial light can be regulated. High-contrast lighting and intense illumination may cause discomfort to the eyes. Conversely, an alternative method to distinguish behavioral zones and spaces, rather than relying on hard materials, involves manipulating the amount of light.
The recommended window surface area is approximately one-eighth to one-fifth of the total wall surface. This allocation should be made on both sides of the opening room to enhance natural light.
Environments abundant in natural light and brightness positively impact children's emotions. In contrast, dimly lit or artificially illuminated spaces, characterized by low light levels, are considered unsuitable.
8.4. Color
Up until the age of 6, children exhibit a strong inclination to highlight color descriptions and draw comparisons between objects primarily based on their colors. Consequently, it is essential to prioritize attention to color, avoiding contrasting compositions and favoring the use of gentle tonalities.
8.5. Form
Due to their limited ability to concentrate on multiple matters simultaneously, children typically benefit from the utilization of simple forms. It is advisable to incorporate soft shapes and avoid sharp corners in design, fostering an environment where children experience a sense of calmness, comfort, and safety simultaneously.
8.6. Signs
Appreciating signs is considered a challenge in architecture. Every sign has a distinct influence on the observer. The impact may stem from cognitive preservation and past learning, or it may transform into a sign for the individual defined by form, size, and color through repetition, thereby incorporating both aesthetic and semantic aspects.
8.7. Material and Texture
When assessing architecture based on species, the significance of elements often outweighs the building's function, exerting an aesthetic influence. The gender of spatial defining elements holds paramount importance in shaping the overall impact on human perception, an aspect frequently overlooked. Within architectural perception, touch emerges as the second most crucial sense after sight. We are in direct contact with material surfaces through tactile interaction, which provides a physical understanding. Varied surface coatings result in fundamental distinctions in the personalities of spaces.
Coordination arises when a form manages to distinguish itself from its context, achieving harmony amidst inherent contradictions.
Contradiction serves as a powerful tool for emphasis, expressing unique concepts and expressions. For instance, the placement of two tall elements with a slight difference in height yields less significance compared to positioning two elements with various dimensions together. By identifying analogies between elements and exploring consistent properties that lead to a deliberate contradiction, we reinforce the conceptual strength of each element. This strategic approach not only highlights individual elements but is also effective in enhancing education and strengthening children's sensory capabilities.
For children struggling with focus, the transfer of concepts to their long-term memory becomes feasible through such strategic approaches.
9. Conclusion
In conclusion, kindergarten stands as a transformative phase nurturing children's love for learning and general development. The historical evolution in Iran showcases a shift towards creativity, emphasizing individualized learning. The architectural landscape of kindergartens, detailed in the HEAD study, is a factor of educational quality, shaping psychological well-being. Emphasizing collaboration and innovation, architects must embrace 21st-century learning demands, recognizing outdoor spaces and tailored configurations. Specialized spaces within kindergartens, such as libraries, laboratories, and performance areas, contribute to a comprehensive educational landscape. Criteria for architectural space quality, blending theory, and sensory considerations, underpin the creation of enriching kindergarten environments. Addressing the broader education system's challenges, a flexible approach, as seen in Sudbury Valley School, prompts reflection on the effectiveness of conventional methods. The research objectives and methodology guide the exploration of architecture's potential in designing adaptable, aesthetically pleasing educational spaces, fostering a playful urban environment, and cultivating the cultural-artistic dimension of children.
References
[1] Noroozi, D., Razavi, A. (2014). “Instructional Design Foundations”, Samt Publishing.
[2] Hudson, M., White, T. (2019). “Planning Learning Spaces: A Practical Guide for Architects, Designers and School Leaders (Resources for School Administrators, Educational Design)”, Laurence King Publishing.
[3] Kamelnia, H. (2005). “Architectural Patterns in Educational Spaces”, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad Press.
[4] Asadollahi, S. (2003). “Kindergarten Design”. Tehran Publishing.
[5] Behrouz Far, F. (2001). “Basics of Designing Open Residential Spaces in accordance with the Physical and Mental Condition of Children”. Tehran Publishing.
[6] Basirian, Firoozeh (2004). “Center for the Intellectual Development of Children and Adolescents”. Tehran Publishing.
[7] Coombs, Philip (2000). “The World Educational Crisis: A Systems Analysis”, Oxford University Press.
[8] Hoshyar, M. B. (1968). “Principles of Education”. Amirkabir Publishing.
[9] Izadpanah Jahromi, A. (2004). “Child, Play and City Process: Principles and Criteria for Planning and Designing Children's Play Spaces”. Publications of the Organization of Municipalities.
[10] Khalili, A. (2003). “Fostering Creativity in Children”. Tehran: Diba Garan Cultural and Artistic Institute.
[11] Riahi, A. (2004). “The Impact of Play on Children's Creativity”. Naghsh Dunya No Magazine.
[12] Routledge, Paul K. (1923). “The Language and Thought of the Child”. London.
[13] Routledge, Paul K. (1950). “The Psychology of Intelligence”. London.
[14] Routledge, Paul K. (1953). “The Origins of Intelligence in Children”. New York: International University Press.
[15] Routledge, Paul K. (1964). “The Early Growth of Logic in the Child”. London.
[16] Shokouhi, Gh. H. (1994). “Education and Its Stages”, 13th edn. Mashhad: Astan Quds Razavi.