Evolution from Brahmi to Gupta to sanskrit part 24

Grammar in Rig Veda

Artha is an all-embracing term having a verity of hues and shades of meanings. In numerous contexts, it stands for the meaning of the word (pada+artha) as also for an object (padartha) in the sense of an element of external reality. It could also mean Artha (money), the source of all Anartha (troubles); and Anartha could also be nonsense , meaningless or  purposeless (nish-prayojanam) . Artha is also one of the pursuits of life – wealth or well being. Artha could also signify economic power and polity. And, finally, Paramartha is the ultimate objective. The Grammar in the ancient Indian context was a highly respected subject. The Vedic traditions such as Nyaya, Mimamsa and Vedanta. The Sanskrit tradition is the dynamic product of the interactions of different philosophical, religious and cultural currents. Even within the Brahminical, Buddhist or Jaina traditions, numerous disciplines, doctrines, and branches of learning-are continuously interacting with each other.

Bhart?hari paid enormous importance to the study of language. According to him, ‘a thought cannot be without language’; ’There is no cognition without the process of words’; all knowledge is illumined through words, and it is quite not possible to have cognition that is free from words (Vakyapadiya: 1.123). Bhartrhari says the knowledge comes out in the form of words. Speech is an embodiment of thought. That relation is natural; and, is not artificial.

?abdādibheda? ?abdena vyākhyāto rūpyate yata? / tasmād arthavidhā? sarvā? ?abdamātrāsu ni?ritā?

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Thus, the spoken aspect of the language gains importance in the process of thinking. Thinking, here, is seen as a sort of internal speaking. Such inaudible speech is the seed or the potent form of explicit speech that is heard by others. Bhartrhari, language is used for communication of ideas through spoken words. Grammar deals with this communicative language which consists of (a) sentences and words, (b) appropriate meanings corresponding to the words and the sentences ; and, (c) compatibility between word-sound (sabda) and its meaning (Artha). Bhartrhari also says ‘nahi sarvesham sataam shabdo abhidayakyaha (VP: 2.2.68) – ‘a word cannot always fully express the true nature of an object’. An object is not fully expressed by the word that denotes it. A word , according to him, is an indicator; has limited powers; and, what is intended is more powerful that the word itself.

 na ca sāmānyavat sarve kriyā?abdena lak?itā? /vi?e?ā na hi sarve?ā? satā? ?abdo+abhidhāyaka?

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Bhartrhari says; just as pure knowledge cannot manifest without an object, so also an object cannot exist without its related properties.

But often, the properties expressed by the word are not always real. Let’s take the term, ‘white color of the cloth’ (patasya shukla) which really is non-existent. It means that when a feature of an object is expressed in words it hardly matters whether the feature actually exists or not.

Bhartrhari explains: Let’s say, our perception of a fast revolving fire is called fire-circle (alata-chakra). It is a word that is commonly used. But, that is an illusion. There is no fire-circle as such. Similarly ‘hare’s horn’ (sasa-sringa) , ‘sky-flower’ (kha-pushpa) are just words that refer to non-reality. Thus, the word not only presents an incomplete picture, but it also projects non-reality.

Yet, the word with its limited power, tries to signify a ‘perceived’ reality; and, checks it through ‘speaker’s intention’.

Language is the most important human behaviour; and makes communication and interconnectedness possible. With practice, it makes even a child capable to deal with the world (balaanam ca yathatha pratipadane: VP: 2.117)

abhyāsāt pratibhāhetu? sarva? ?abdo+aparai? sm?ta?/ bālānā? ca tira?cā? ca yathārthapratipādane

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Language is the limit of the world as we know. All cognition is enlightened only when pierced by the word (sabda).

There were also attempts to systematize not merely the Vedic texts, but also its precise rendering. Towards that end, the original text, Samhita-patha, meant continuous recitation, was re-cast into Pada-patha, the word for word arrangement of the text. This helped to produce a full analysis of the phonetic content of text.

That led to the development of the Pratisakhyas, a set of rules for regulating the combination of letters and their pronunciations as per the requirements that are specific to each Shakha or the branch a Veda. These Pratisakhyas are considered to be the earliest formulations of Sanskrit grammar.

Along with the Pratisakhyas, the Brahmanas; the Nighantu (glossaries); Nirvachana (clear explanation of words/terms listed in the Nighantu); and Nirukta (a branch of etymology offering explanations about the derivation of certain chosen words of the Vedas) all contributed to refining the Sanskrit Grammar (Vyakarana).

Vedic utterances (Chandas) towards the spoken language (Bhasha). Through all these writings, the Sanskrit language was growing along with its grammar.

Grammar- Vyakarana also known as  Pada-Shastra  (the science of words) which treats the word as the basic unit ; and , deals with the study of the spoken language involving words and sentences , came to regarded as one of the most important Vedanga (branch of the Vedic studies).

The Vyakarana (Grammar) tradition is universally well known, through a number of treatises, but, mainly through Panini’s famous text Astadhyayi. However, in regard to Nirvachana-shastra, of the several works of that class which were said to be in existence before sixth century B C E, only one work, the Nirukta of Yascacharya, has survived . His Nirukta is looked upon as the oldest authoritative treatise regarding derivation of Vedic words.

The history of Sanskrit grammar is generally classified into three broad segments: the Grammars that were in use prior to the time of Panini (Pre-Panian); the Grammars that follow the system devised by Panini (Panian); and, those Grammars whose systems and methods vary from that of Panini (Non- Panian).

Panini , in his Astadhyayi , specifically refers to ten Grammarians (Vaiyyakaranah) and linguists , who flourished prior to his time (Ca.500 BCE) : Sakatayana; Gargya; Galava; Sakalya; Senaka; Sphotayana; Bhardvaja; Apisapi; Kashyapa ; and, Cakra-varmana.

In addition, Panini also mentions Yaska, the Etymologist Ca. 650 BCE) – yaska-ādibhyo gotre – PS_2, 4.63. And, Yaska, in his Nirukta, also mentions the four Grammarians referred to by Panini: Sakatayayana; Gargya; Galava; and, Sakalya. 

Brhaspathi, the son of Angirasa, was an exponent of the Sanskrit grammar. According to Patanjali‘s Mahabhashya, Brhaspathi is said to have taught Grammar to Indra (B?haspati? Indrāya divyam var?asahasram, pratipada-uktānām ?abdānām ?abda-pārāya?am provāca na antam). And, Indra taught it to Bharadvaja, who, in turn, instructed the other sages (Brhaspatir Indraya; Indro Bharadvajaya; Bharadvaja rshibhya).

The Sanskrit grammar written by Indra was called Aindra. The Aindra or Aindri was referred to in the Pratisakhyas, Katantra; and was also quoted by Panini and other Grammarians. It appears, the technical terms used by the Aindra Grammar were simpler and archaic as compared to those in the work of Panini.

Aindra is traditionally considered to be one among the older Schools of Grammar. And, some scholars claim that Aindra was known to Panini.

Non-Panian Schools of Grammar, viz., Aindra and Katantra were in use in South India ; and, that the Tamil grammatical work Tolkappiyam was described as aindiram nirainda Tolkappiyam  (comprising Aindra).

Fragments of the Kātantra-grammar with a commentary; and, a seemingly earlier version named Kaumāralāta , have come to light in the Turfan region (modern Turkestan); and, are dated to the 4th–5th cent. CE.. Although the Kātantra was studied throughout most of India and beyond, the grammar had a close a?liation with Buddhists , as its presence in the Turfan, Tibetan translations, and the commentary by Durgasi?ha, a Buddhist, attest to.

Bharadvaja, the son of Brhaspathi, was also a great Grammarian. He authored Bharadvaja Shiksha; and instructed many sages. Bharadvaja was also said to be well versed in medical sciences.

There is also a mention of Pauskarasadi a great Grammarian, who, it is believed, was a contemporary of Krishna-dvaipayana Vyasa. Patanjali in his Mahabashya quotes an opinion offered by Pauskarasadi – caya? dvitīyā? bhavanti ?ari parata? pau?karasāde? ācāryasya matena.

Galava was said to another great Grammarian. He is credited with  introducing Krama-patha  (step-by-step recitation) and Shiksha as related to Grammar. Panini mentions Galava four times; twice along with Gargya; and once with Kashyapa.

iko hrasvo ‘?yo Gālavasya | PS_6,3.61 | a? Gārgya-Gālavayo? | PS_7,3.99 | t?tīyādi?u bhā?itapu?ska? pu?vad Gālavasya |  PS_7,1.74| na +udātta svaritodayam a-Gārghya-Kā?yapa-Gālavānām | PS_8,4.67 |

Patanjali mentions Babhravya (also associated with Krama-patha) along with Mandavya: sa? yathā iha bhavati Bābhravya?, Mā??avya? iti evam su?rut , sau?ruta? iti atra api prāpnoti na e?a? do?a? – P_1,1.3.2

Kasakrtsna was a respected Grammarian, who explained the rules of the ancient Grammar. Towards the end of his Mahabhashya, Patanjali mentions Kasakrtsna along with Apisali and Panini were highly reputed Grammarians (Paninina proktam Paniniyam, Apisalim Kasakrtsnam iti – Pas_14 )

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Sakalya was a popular Grammarian.  He is respected as the author of the padapatha of the Rigveda , where the sentences of the Samhita Paatha (the original text, as it is) were broken down into words (pada) and arranged in sequential order (a word-by-word pronunciation scheme).  ?ākalya is said to have composed four works relating to Grammar – Salakyatantra; Veda-mitra-Sakalaya; Sakalacharana; and, Pada samhita.

Yaska also mentions Sakalya:  veti.ca.ya.iti.ca.cakāra.?ākalyah (Nir.6.28)

Panini quotes Sakalya at least four times in his Astadhyayi:

sambuddhau ?ākalyasya-itāv anār?e || PS_1,1.16 || iko ‘savar?e ?ākalyasya hrasva? ca || PS_6,1.127 || lopa? ?ākalyasya || PS_8,3.19 || sarvatra ?ākalyasya || PS_8,4.51 ||

Patanjali also quotes the opinions of Sakalya; and, respectfully addresses him as Acharya: u?a? Sākalyasya Acāryasya matena prag?hya-sa?j?ā bhavati – P_1,1.17-18.2

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Apisali was a great Grammarian, who systematically constructed a work on Grammar in eight chapters. His rules covered not only the Vedic words (vaidlka) ; but also the words in common usage.  Panini quoted the opinion of Apisali (vā supyāpi?ale? – PS_6, 1.92 .)

Patanjali mentions Apisali along with other great Grammarians : proktādaya? ca taddhitā? na upapadyante Pā?ininā proktam Pā?inīyam, Api?alam, Kā?ak?tsnam iti –Pas_14;  Api?ala-Pā?inīya-Vyā?īya-Gautam-īyā? – P_6,2.36

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Kasyapa was another grammarian. Panini, in his Astadhyayi, often cites Kasyapa’s views, along with those of other reputed Grammarians such as Gargya, Galava and others.

t??i-m??i-k??e? Kā?yapasya |PS_1, 2.25| na+udāttasvaritodayam a-Gārghya-Kā?yapa-Gālavānām |PS_8,4.67| vikar?a-ku?ītakāt kā?yape|PS_4,1.124|  Kā?yapa-kau?ikā bhyām ??ibhyā? ?ini? |PS_4,3.103|

And, Patanjali quotes Kashyapa as many as twelve times – kā?yapa graha?am kimartham. kā?yapa graha?am pūjārtham – P_1,2.25

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The name of Gargya is mentioned along with that of Sakalya in the Pratisakhya.  Panini in his grammar also mentions Sakalya and Gargya (along with Galava): a? Gārgya-Gālava yo? |PS_7, 3.99| Oto Gargyasya |PS_8, 3.20|

Patanjali mentions Gargya almost countless times: Gārgyāya?a? Vātsyāyana? parama Gārgyāya?a? parama Vātsyāyana? – P_1, 1.72.5

The elder ?āka?āyana was said to be an early Etymologist (Nairukta).  Even though his works are lost, his views are made known indirectly through references by Yaska and Panini.

This Sakatayana was also a celebrated Grammarian – Anu Sakatayanam Vaikaranah. And, his Grammar is, of course, no longer in existence; and, therefore, it is not clear what type or School of Grammar it represented. Panini refers to Sakatayana at least three times

La?a? ?āka?āyanasya+eva –PS_3, 4.111 | V-yor laghuprayatnatara? ?āka?āyanasya –PS_8, 3.18 | Riprabh?ti?u ?āka?āyanasya – PS_8, 4.50 |

Sakatayana is said to have held the view that all nouns are essentially derived from verbal roots.

Atha ananvite arthe aprāde?ike vikāre padebhya? / pada itara Ardhānt sa?caskāra ?āka?āyana? –  Nir.1.13.

Patanjali, in his Mahabashya mentioned Sakatayana at least seven times; and, also spoke of Sakatayana’s theory – La?a? ?āka?āyanasya +eva-  PS_3, 4.111 .

Nāma ākhyātayo tu karm upasamyoga dyotakā.bhavanty ucca avacā? pada Arthā bhavanti iti.Gārgyas

Panini mentions one Sphotayana, who spoke about the word and its meaning (ava? spho?āyanasya – PS_6,1.123),; and, as the one who originally came up with Sphota concept (Sphota-tattva) . Yaska had also said to have cited Sphotayana. Later Patanjali also commented upon the theory of Sphota (Sphota vada) – evam tarhi spho?a? ?abda? dhvani? ?abdagu?a? – P_1,1.70.2.

 Brthrhari’s remarkable work Vakyapadiya was the theory of Sphota concept (Sphota vada), now commonly understood as ‘ meaningful   linguistic unit, revealed by sounds’.

Vyakarana came to be divided into Pracheena-vyakarana (????????????????) – pre-Panini ; and Navya vyakarana (?????????????)- post Panini. Later age Grammarians recognize the eight Grammarians of merit,  Vyakarana-shastra-pravartakas (????????????????????????) :

??????????????? ???????????????? ???????? ? ???????????????????? ??????????? ? ????????? ?

Indra (???????), Chandra (???????), Kasha (????), Krtsnapishali (?????????????), Shakatayana (????????), Panini (???????), Amarajainendra (?????????????), Jayanti (???????) are the eight Masters of shabda (word) or grammar.]

Sakalya the author of the Padapatha  (arrangement of words of a verse in sequence) of the Rig-Veda; and, he is mentioned by Panini. Again, Panini also mentions one Sphotayana who spoke about the word and its meaning. Bhartrhari also refers to Sphotayana. And, Yaska mentions another ancient authority – Audumbarayana  

(indriya.nityam.vacanam.audumbarāya?a? – 1,1).

Further, Bhartrhari, citing Yaska, states that Audumbarayana, as also Varttakas held views similar to his Sphota-vada. There is also a mention of another sage Sakatayana who is said to have held the view that all words must be derived from verbal roots.But, no authenticated works of any of these authors have come down to us.

na.nirbaddhā.upasargā.arthān.nirāhur.iti.?āka?āyana?–1,3: pada itara ardhānt sa?caskāra ?āka?āyana? – 1,13

There were several theories or Schools of Grammar in use even during the time of Bhartrhari. He refers to ‘other Grammars (Vyakaranatara), to other Grammarians (anya vaiyyakaranah) as also to ‘other traditional works’ (smatyantara)’; as also to the conflicting theories of other person’ or ‘theories of others’ ( apare) . 

‘other Grammars (Vyakaranatara) mentioned by Bhartrhari might refer to ancient Grammarians Apisali and Kasakrtsna. But again, nothing much is known about those ancient scholars and their theories.

Eke varnayanti, anye varnayanti; apare varnayati; anvesham darshanam; apareshu vyakhyanam

Thus, the study of Grammar and the philosophy of language, in varied traditions, have always taken an important position in Indian thought. In Grammar, the nature of words, meanings and the relationship between them and their variances are studied. It was said: “the foremost among the learned are the Grammarians, because Grammar lies at the root of all learning” (prathame hi vidvamso vaiyyakarabah , vyakarana mulatvat sarva vidyanam – Anandavardhana ).

 Grammar as the ‘purifier of all the sciences’. Bhartrhari compared the science of Grammar to the medical science; and, said that just as the medicines remove the impurities of the body, so does Grammar removes the impurities of speech (chikitsitam van-malaanam) and of the mind. 

Bhartrhari who inherited the traditional attitude towards Grammar, regarded it as the holiest branch of learning; and, elevated Grammar to the status of Agama and Sruti, leading the way to liberation (dvāram apavargasya) . He believed the use of correct forms of language enables clear thinking; and, makes it possible to gain philosophic wisdom or to pursue other branches of valid knowledge.

Tad dvāram apavargasya vā?malānā? cikitsitam / pavitra? sarva-vidyānām adhividya? prakā?ate – BVaky. 1.14

Praj?ā viveka? labhate bhinnair āgama-dar?anai? / kiyad vā ?akyam unnetu? svatarkam anudhāvatā- BVaky. 2.489

Sādhutva j?āna vi?ayā seya? vyākara?a-sm?ti? / avicchedena ?i??ānām ida? sm?ti –nibandhanam – BVaky. 1.158

Grammar – Vyakarana also known as Pada –Shastra (the science of words) which treats the word as the basic unit and deals with the study of the spoken language involving words and sentences , is regarded as one of the most important Vedanga (branch of the Vedic studies). The primary object of Vyakarana, in that context, was to study the structure of the Vedic language in order to preserve its purity and to ensure its longevity. Panini asserted that the Grammar should be studied in order to preserve the Vedas (rakshatam Vedanam adhyeyam vyakaranam). 

Thus, safeguarding the purity of its language, its correct usage (sadhutva) meant ensuring the continuity (nitya) of Vedas in their pristine form.