EU and the Syrian Crisis
EU and the Syrian crisis
By Daniel Ozoukou*
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?One of our most valuable instruments and one of the greatest
The strength of the EU is its comprehensive approach. It is about the
effective combination of diplomatic, military, political, financial and
other instruments. But most of all it is about the broadest possible
vision of what security is about?[1] - Catherine Ashton.
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???????? In 2011, amidst brutal repression of the population, the EU issued several statements denouncing the violent repression of demonstrators and urged President Assad "to exercise the utmost restraint across the country and to meet legitimate demand and aspirations of the people? with dialogue and urgent political and socio-economic reforms."[2]
????????????? Moreover, the EU indicated that Bashar Assad had lost legitimacy in the eyes of the Syrian population and urged him to step down.[3] The great power leadership including President Barack Obama (US) President Nicolas Sarkozy (France) Prime Minister David Cameron (UK) Angela Merkel (Germany) urged Assad to resign.[4] In that context, they sponsored resolutions demanding the resignation of President Assad, but those resolutions were vetoed by China and Russia. The EU and great powers' call did not have an impact on the prevailing situation, and it shifted social unrest to an armed confrontation between the Assad loyal army and non-state entities in mid-2011. The Assad Challengers rapidly sized northern strategic cities, including Aleppo, one of Syria’s largest towns [5]. While the great powers were demanding that Assad step down and refrain from military repression, they were providing logistical and political leverage to the Syrian opposition (The National Syrian Council).
?????? The EU conditioned the renewal of cooperation with Syria through the departure of President Assad from power. The EU repeatedly demanded the resignation of President Assad, disregarding the principles of state sovereignty and peaceful dispute settlement. The EU has increasingly pressurized the Assad government and imposed a sanction regime, among other things the (1) suspension of bilateral cooperation programs, (2) freezing of the draft EU-Syrian Association agreement, and (3) suspension of the participation of Syrian authorities in EU’s regional programs, loan operations, and technical assistance. The EU's policy in Syria was guided by its Partnership for Democracy and Shared Prosperity (PfDSP), was released on March 8, 2011, as a response to the Arab Spring. The PfDSP implicitly acknowledged the Syrian uprising as a demand "for democracy, the rule of law, social justice, freedom, and employment opportunities"[6].? Porleta Carla (2012) stressed that the self-avowed, half-heartedness with which the EU had promoted democracy in the region until the popular revolts erupted constitutes an embarrassing background. The sanctions imposed by the Assad government led Syria to find another solution. The Syrian foreign minister said that they would forget Europe and look for new partnerships, and the Ba'athist socialist regime suspended cooperation with the EU.
???????? In that cooperation vacuum, in 2013, Assad received military support from Hezbollah and the Iran Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC), and later Russia.? Russia and Iran helped the Assad regime mitigate the impact of the EU sanctions. The Syrian government was thus able to "spread its trade to different states including Lebanon and Iraq and relied on the Russian Banking sector to alleviate the EU EIB sanctions."[7] Further, on the oil embargo, Assad managed to secure alternative supplies from its strategic partnerships (Iran and Russia).[8]? Qassem Sheik Naim, Hezbollah deputy chief said: "There is a practical reality in Syria that the West should deal with, US and Western allies were in disarray and lacked a coherent policy on Syria- (…) they supported the pro-democracy protests in? 2011 [but the conflict shifted ] into a war that has drawn al Qaeda and other militants to the rebel cause."[9]
??????????? On December 10, 2011, Ashton Catherine Margaret High Representative of the EU for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy and First Vice-President of the European Commission (2009-2014) met with Syrian revolutionary and opposition movements. She indicated that the EU "accepts the opposition leadership as legitimate representatives of Syria and the Syrian people.” This decision complicated the peaceful settlement of the dispute and the EU was no longer seen as an impartial body in the Syrian conflict. Further, the EU "encouraged the opposition coalition to engage with UN special representative and put forward its program for a political transition to create a credible alternative to the recurrent regime."[10] In parallel, the UK government argued that the Syrian population could not wait indefinitely for a diplomatic solution to the conflict and offered ￡5m to the population[11]. The EU policy contrasted with the principle of state sovereignty that it proclaimed under the statement: "there can be no military solution to the Syrian conflict and the EU is committed to unity, territorial integrity, sovereignty, and independence of the Syrian State.”
?????????? On April 22, 2013, the EU lifted the oil embargo when the oil field fell under revolutionary opposition rule. The EU indicated that "competent authorities will consult with the Syrian National Coalition for Opposition and Revolutionary Forces before approving oil transactions."[12] One month later, the EU lifted arms embargo "with possible export of arms to Syria.” This policy was the main reason why Russia and China vetoed most UN Security Council resolutions on Syria. They criticized "Western and Arab states for covertly and overtly arming the rebels."[13] In parallel, the two superpowers noted that the Syrian National Security Forces could not remove their weapons from cities while non-state actors strongly armed held towns entirely.[14] Porleta Carla (2012) gives insights on Russia's support to Syria: "The strategic importance of Syria to Russia does not only emanate from the lucrative weapons deals it secures, but also from being the host of Russia's only maritime base in the Mediterranean. Losing Syria, Russia's last stronghold in the Middle East is a major psychological and reputational setback".
????????? On June 24, 2013, the EU released a comprehensive policy to address the Syrian conflict. The New Policy ‘Toward a comprehensive EU approach to the Syrian crisis.’? It aimed at "support[ing] a political process that brings a sustainable solution to the crisis; prevent regional destabilization from the spill-over of the country in neighboring counties; address the humanitarian situation address the consequence of the conflict on and in the EU". Four years later, a new strategy was developed with the objective of (a) ending the war through a genuine political transition, (b) saving lives by addressing humanitarian needs, (c) promoting human rights, and (d) promoting accountability for war crimes. Nothing changed fundamentally in the EU policy because sanctions were maintained over the Syrian government and the resignation of Assad.
?????????????? The Council called upon the "Assad regime and its allies, notably Russia, to undertake all necessary efforts to ensure a full cessation of hostilities, the lifting of sieges, and full and unhindered humanitarian access". The EU emphasized the need to end the gross violation of human rights and warned that the perpetrator would be held accountable. In addition, The EU maintains that there can be no lasting peace in Syria under the Assad regime.? The EU justice policy’s ultimate objective was to refer Assad to the International Criminal Court (ICC), noting that, (January 14, 2013), Switzerland drafted a letter to the UNSC signed by 57 UN member states requesting a referral to the ICC Syrian case. However, accountability policies might worsen the conflict and hamper durable peace in Syria.
??????????? In 2014, the Al-Qaeda affiliated groups spotted in Syria with the establishment of the Islamic caliphate which claimed approximately a third of Syrian territory with Raqqa (442.6 km north of Damascus) as capital.[15] The presence of terrorist groups complicated more the situation as they "espoused a more virulent Salafi-jihadist ideology and focused on seizing territory and creating their own states"[16]. The EU was concerned about the emergence of Al Qaeda-affiliated militant groups, including Jabha al Nursra (JAN) and the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant. Therefore, Europeans reconsidered their robust posture and indicated that they cannot be at the forefront in the struggle against terrorist organizations, but can only support the UN peace initiatives.[17]?
??????? In December 2016, the EU provided support to the UN-led International, impartial, and independent mechanism (IIIM) established by the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). The IIIM aimed to collect, consolidate, preserve, and analyze evidence of crimes committed in Syria. Through the € 1.5 million committed under its instrument to Stability and Peace (icSP), the EU enabled the start of IIIM work as of summer 2017. This initiative aimed to address human rights violations and ensure meaningful political transition in Syria.
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???????? Previously, the Syria Peace Process Support Initiative (SPPI) under the Instruments Contributing to Stability and Peace IcSP-funded project was launched by the EU and German Federal Foreign Office. Its objective was to bring together actors from different sides of Syria and to promote women's roles in political and societal development. In 2017, the EU under the IcSP provided financial, technical, and analytical support to the overall work to reach a negotiated political transition in Syria.
??????? In March 2019, the EU organized a third Brussels conference on garnering support for a political transition in Syria. Federica Mogherini, High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy/Vice President of the commission (2014-2019) contends "Nobody will win neither the war nor the peace, without a negotiated political transition."? Leonardo Sartoni explains the failure of the EU to handle the crisis by its low leverage and linkage with Syria. However, it should be noted that the EU was the main donor of Syria before the crisis and partnered with Syria under the European neighborhood policy and the Euro-Mediterranean partnership. These instruments aimed to increase EU leverage and linkages with the Assad regime. The EU failed because of its policy and the opposition between China and Russia within the Security Council.
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Daniel Ozoukou, former Research Fellow at The Zolberg Institute. The ongoing debate over the collapse of the Assad regime is an opportunity to provide some insights into the Syrian crisis. So, I extracted some paragraphs from my full research article entitled'' EU, Turkey in the Syrian Migration Crisis."
[1] Cited by Leonardo Sartoni in Assessing the EU strategy vis-à-vis the Syrian crisis, P.2, 2014
[2] Rim Turkmani and Mustafa Haid The role of the EU in the Syria conflict 05/16.
[3] Ibidem.
[4] Ibidem.
[5] MonaYacoubian Syria Timeline: Since the Uprising Against Assad, July 2020.
[6] Andrea Teti The EU’s first response to the Arab Spring: A critical discourse Analysis of the partnership for democracy and shared prosperity 25 October 2012.
[7] Rim Turkmani and Mustafa Haid The role of the EU in the Syria conflict 05/16.
[8] Ibidem.
[9] reuters.org Hezbollah confident in Assad, West resigned to the Syria stalemate on April 9, 2014.
[10] Ibidem.
[11] Borger, J. Britain gave ￡5m aid to Syrian opposition groups. The Guardian? 10 August 2012 https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/aug/10/britain-aid-syrian-opposition-groups
[12] Rim Turkmani and Mustafa Haid The role of the EU in the Syria conflict 05/16.
[13] John Hudson Why did Kofi Annan fail? Atlantic August 2, 2012.
[14] Ibidem
[16] Ibidem
[17] See the response of Mongherini to the idea of the EU leading peaceconference for