Emotional Intelligence. What is it? What Does the Research Say?

Do you have emotional intelligence?

What actually is emotional intelligence?

Defining emotional intelligence

Brackett, Rivers, & Salovey, (2011) point out that emotional intelligence was formally described for the first time in 1990 by Salovey and Mayer. Salovey and Mayer (1990, p. 189) defined emotional intelligence as “the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions.”

To try to add empirical weight to their definition Brackett, et al., 2011, referring to Mayer, DiPaolo, & Salovey (1990) argued that there was a relationship between emotions and intelligence. Whereas prior to their juxtaposition of affect and cognition, historically “‘emotion’ and ‘intelligence’ were viewed as being in opposition to one another” (Brackett, et al., 2011, p. 89).

These historical arguments were based on the opinion that asked the question “[h]ow could one be intelligent about the emotional aspects of life when emotions derail individuals from achieving their goals?” (Brackett, et al., 2011, p. 89).

However, despite these historical arguments that cerebrally separated emotions and intelligence, Brackett, et al. (2011, p. 89) noted that the research by Mayer et al. (1990) led to the view that “emotions make cognitive processes adaptive and individuals can think rationally about emotions.” As a result of this melding between affect and cognition, research, which concurrently examined emotions and intelligence slowly evolved into what became known as emotional intelligence.

Brackett, et al. (2011, p. 89) points out that the concept of emotional intelligence evolved through forty years of psychological research that examined two areas. The first area examined “how cognitive and emotional processes interact to enhance thinking” (Bower, 1981; Isen, Shalker, Clark, & Karp, 1978; Zajonc, 1980). This included, according to Brackett, et al. (2011, p. 89), citing studies by Forgas and Moylan, 1987; Mayer and Bremer, 1985, that looked at emotions like that of happiness, fear, anger, “as well as mood states, preferences, and bodily states [and how these affective states] influence how people think, make decisions, and perform different tasks.”

The second area that was examined during this forty-year period “was an evolution in models of intelligence itself” (Brackett, et al., 2011, p. 89). The research here, by the likes of Cantor and Kihlstrom, 1987; Gardner, 1983?1993; Sternberg, 1985, broadened the concept of intelligence. Intelligence was no longer being examined “strictly as how well one engaged in analytic tasks associated with memory, reasoning, judgment, and abstract thought, theorists and investigators began considering intelligence as a broader array of mental abilities.”

Sternberg (1985), for example, argued that researchers, scientists and educators needed to not only consider a person’s intelligence and their associated practical abilities, but there also now needed to be an added emphasis also on a person’s practical knowledge and their creative abilities that helped them to navigate their way through their daily life (Brackett, et al., 2011).

Gardner (1983/1993) expanded the notion of intelligence that “involved in accessing one’s own feeling [about] life (intrapersonal intelligence) and the ability to [also be able to] monitor others’ emotions and mood (interpersonal intelligence).”  All of this “provided a compatible backdrop for considering emotional intelligence as a viable construct” (Brackett, et al., 2011, p. 89).

This led Mayer and Salovey (1997) to expand their emotional intelligence definition to now include “four discrete mental abilities (also referred to as ‘branches’) that comprise emotional intelligence” (Brackett, et al., 2011, p. 91). The four discrete mental abilities established were “(i) perception of emotion, (ii) use of emotion to facilitate thought, (iii) understanding of emotion, and (iv) management of emotion” (Brackett, et al., 2011, p. 91).

Perception of emotion

In terms of identification, perception of emotion, comprises the capacity to be able to recognise and to “differentiate emotions in the self and others” (Brackett, et al., 2011, p. 91). This has positive association with empathy and theory of mind.

Theory of mind

Theory of mind is about the capacity of a person to think about and consider someone else’s thinking. Theory of mind “allows us to take into account someone else’s perspective in order to attribute opinions, feelings, attitudes, and intentions to others” (Arrowsmith-Young, 2012, p. 92).

This type of awareness is critical

This type of awareness is critical in a person’s life because it leads to successful social interactions which help us to “make predictions about others’ behaviors” (p. 92). This awareness can also help us to “decide which of these perspectives (self or other), we should take in a particular situation (depending on the desired outcome)” (pp. 92-93). Arrowsmith-Young (2012) points out that someone with problems in this part of the brain will tend to “either miss or misinterpret others’ intentions” (p. 93), to “misunderstand how his or her own behavior affects others” (p. 93), and to have a “difficult time with social reciprocity” (p. 93).

Use of emotion to facilitate thought

The use of emotion to facilitate thought is about knowing how to harness emotions to “facilitate cognitive activities such as reasoning, problem solving, and interpersonal communication” (Brackett, et al., 2011, p. 91). This is about having the insight and having the cognitive capacity to use the emotions that are being expressed, felt and/or being experienced that have the potential prioritise “thinking by directing attention to important information about the environment or other people” (Brackett, et al., 2011, p. 91). This is very much also about being able to engage in the moment, as well as having the potential to lead to making plans, if required, in response to what is taking place.

Understanding of emotions

This, the third branch of these discrete mental abilities involves “understanding and analyzing emotions” (Brackett, et al., 2011, p. 91). This “includes comprehension of the language and meaning of emotions and an understanding of the antecedents of emotions” (p. 91). This is about having the capacity to be able to successful assess and label emotions (of self and/or others) through the use of “accurate language as well as recognizing similarities and differences between emotion labels and emotions themselves” (p. 91). This is considered to being a complex and sophisticated process that requires the individual to be able to successful focus on what is being presented (both to the self) and what is also being said by the other. For example, if one is able to progress to where a person is able to recognise “transitions between emotions (e.g., sadness may lead to despair which may lead to devastation) is [this is considered to be] an especially sophisticated component of this branch” (p. 91).

Management of emotion

The management of emotions involves a reflective process. This is about having the capacity to focus on the emotion that is taking place, and to deal with the emotion through a cognitive and reflective process that helps the individual to think before they act (Brackett, et al., 2011), and to also plan for the future as this future unrolls during the course of what has been taking place.

Where to from here?

The research indicates that emotional intelligence is an active process. Emotional intelligence should not be viewed as an esoteric expression or “some kind” of insight, into the universal human condition, simply because the words “emotional intelligence” has been used or uttered. Emotional intelligence is an active conscious process that requires effort, insight and understanding where emotions are able to be accurately and intelligently identified.

Emotional intelligence is about having the insight to helping others

Emotional intelligence should therefore be viewed as a means of helping the individual to not only know and advance the self, emotional intelligence is also about having the affective and cognitive capacity in having an empathetic sense of the other. The research also indicates that if a person has an erudite sense of the self and the other, this emotional intelligence insight, by the individual, should better place the individual to potentially engage in a more reflective, supportive, sophisticated and successful manner; not only with self, but also with the other and the social world in which the individual resides (Brackett, et al., 2011; Damasio, 1994; Ekman, 1973; Keltner & Haidt, 2001; Lazarus, 1991).

References

Arrowsmith-Young, B. (2012). The woman who changed her brain. Square Peg, London.

Brackett, M.A., Rivers, S.E., & Salovey, P. (2011). Emotional intelligence: Implications for personal, social, academic, and workplace success. Social and Personality Psychology Compass (5)1 (2011): 88–103, 10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00334.x

Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory. American Psychologist, 36, 129–148.

Cantor, N., & Kihlstrom, J. (1987). Personality and Social Intelligence. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes’ error: emotion, reason, and the human brain. New York. Grosset ? Putnam.

Ekman, P. (1973). Darwin and facial expression: a century of research in review. Oxford, England. Academic Press.

Forgas, J. P. & Moylan, S. (1987). After the movies: Transient mood and social judgments. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 13, 467–477.

Gardner, H. (1983 ? 1993). Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (10th Anniversary Edition). New York. Basic Books.

Isen, A. M., Shalker, T. E., Clark, M., & Karp, L. (1978). Affect, accessibility of material in memory, and behavior: A cognitive loop? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 36, 1–12.

Keltner, D., & Haidt, J. (2001). Social functions of emotions. In T. J. Mayne & G. A. Bonanno (Eds.), Emotions: Current Issues and Future Directions (192–213). New York. Guilford Press.

Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. New York. Oxford University Press.

Mayer, J. D., & Bremer, D. (1985). Assessing mood and affect-sensitive tasks. Journal of Personality Assessment, 49, 95–99.

Mayer, J. D., DiPaolo, M., & Salovey, P. (1990). Perceiving affective content in ambiguous visual stimuli: A component of emotional intelligence. Journal of Personality Assessment, 54, 772–781.

Mayer, J. D. & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey & D. J. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and Emotional intelligence: Educational implications (pp. 3–34). New York, NY. Basic Books, Inc.

Salovey, P. & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 9, 185–211.

Sternberg, R. J. (1985). The Triarchic Mind: A New Theory of Human Intelligence. New York, NY: Penguin.

Zajonc, R. B. (1980). Feeling and thinking: Preferences need no inferences. American Psychologist, 35, 161–175.

About the Author

Dr. Ragnar Purje holds the position of Adjunct Lecturer and Research Higher Degree Student Supervisor, CQUniversity Australia.

Ragnar completed his PhD thesis in cognitive neuroscience, under the supervision of Professor Ken Purnell at CQUniversity. Ragnar’s thesis focussed on researching the success of his new and pioneering form of brain and complex movement therapy. This is where he first applied his new therapy, in 1993, to an individual who received an acquired brain injury, as a result of being hit by a car; resulting in an incapacitated condition. This incapacitation remained in place for 28 months.

When Ragnar introduced his new therapy, despite having been incapacitated for nearly two-and-a-half years, the patient began to walk 10-12 weeks later; four weeks after that the patient ran 10 metres into the arms of his fiancée (and later wife). The basis of Ragnar’s doctoral research was to try to discover what had taken place to create this cognitive, physical and behavioural change from incapacitated to ongoing ambulatory recovery, which continues to this day.

Ragnar’s thesis led to his therapy being classified as Complex Brain Based Multi-Movement Therapy (CBBMMT).

In addition to this Ragnar’s thesis added two new descriptors into the lexicon of human biology; these are neurofluidity and hólos. Neurofluidity are the neurological processes that lead to the condition of brain plasticity. The hólos is a term which, for the first time in history (to the best of Ragnar’s research and understanding), provides a descriptor which unifies the brain and the body, with one word. Prior to this the brain and the body had always been referred to as two separate entities, i.e. the brain and the body. Hólos derives from the Greek: ?λο? ? ? ólos. The English word holistic is derived from hólos. Holistic and hólos offer the same classification. Holistic and hólos incorporate the concept of holism.

Ragnar is the author of Responsibility Theory?. The initiator of NeuroNumeracy?, an intensive self-motivating neuroscience brain based program for children, the purpose of which is to enhance their skills, knowledge and understanding of the four operations in mathematics. Ragnar bases all of his achievements as a result of undertaking and passionately persevering with the traditional martial art of Goju Karate that began in January of 1970. Ragnar continues his practice of Goju Karate on a daily basis. “Every day one kata.”

Responsibility Theory? is available online through Amazon Kindle. Hard copies can be obtained from the CQUniversity Book Store. Website: bookshop.cqu.edu.au The phone number is: + 61 7 4930 9421.