Emerging Technologies & Challenges For Developing Countries

By

SAMUEL ZOWAM

Colorado School of Mines

March, 2018

Introduction

We are witnessing a very rapid rate of technological innovations, particularly in the growing capabilities of the Web, artificial intelligence, big data, improved analytics, automated translation services, and robotics. Related to these is the new concept of the “Internet of Things”, where digital processes are increasingly talking to other digital processes and creating new processes on their own without human interventions. There is also the tumbling costs of computing power, telecommunications and storage capacity. It is the convergence of all these factors that is making the new technological power not only more affordable, but also compelling.

The future job challenges that these emerging technologies are set to create for developing countries (DCs) is a very urgent and profound challenge for the leaders of the DCs. To look at this topic, this paper is set out under the following headings:

1. Impact of previous technological turning points on jobs;

2. Another technology turning point appears imminent;

3. Impact of the evolving information economy on developing countries

4. The way forward for developing economies

Impact Of Previous Technological Turning On Jobs

Geoff Colvin (2014) has identified the three major technological turning of the last 200 years, and their disruptive impacts on national economies and jobs:

1. The 1st technological turning point: Geoff identified the world’s 1st major technological turning point (TTP) as the arrival of the “factory” and industrial technology, which caused 19th century production to shift from small artisanal shops, to bigger and more efficient factories. He used the old artisanal gun maker to illustrate how the nature of jobs changed: The highly skilled gun maker would typically carve the gun’s stock, cast the barrel, engrave the lock, file the trigger, and painstakingly fit the pieces together. But the arrival of the gun factory created a novel division of labor – where separate workers were required to do each of those jobs, or even portions of them, using new machinery, to produce components that were identical. As the number of factories increased, the economy now wanted low-skilled factory workers, rather than highly skilled artisans! This had the effect of devaluing the highly skilled artisans (with all their skills), which created major upheavals and angry protests in different sectors of the economy by those it was disintermediating!

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, describes for example, how in England, textile artisans protested violently against a new textile technology that was disintermediating them with less-skilled, low-wage labourers. They rampaged about, striving to destroy the known installations of the “evil” technology. This crystallised into a region-wide rebellion in

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north-western England that required a heavy military deployment to suppress! The members of this movement came to be known as the “Luddites”!

2. The 2nd technological turning point: This, according to Geoff, occurred in in the 20th century, as more quickly, and electricity became widely available, giving rise to a wide range of new household and industrial goods and services that were based on electricity supply.

In particular, it gave rise to greater sophistication of factories, creating the need for more skilled workers. Companies also started getting larger and more complex, requiring a larger corps of better-educated managers. As Geoff put it: “Now the unskilled were out of luck, and educated workers were in demand. Through most of the 20th century, Americans responded by becoming better educated as technology continued to advance, producing an economic miracle of fast-rising living standards.”

3. The 3rd technological turning point: Geoff explains that the 3rd TTP has been on since the 1980s, when information and communications technology (ICT) developed to a point where it started to take over many blue-collar and white-collar (routine, medium-skilled) tasks. David Rotman (2013) shares some statistics on the impact of this displacement:

a. The proportion of Americans employed in manufacturing dropped from 30% in the post–World War II years to around 10% today; and

b. By 2000, only 2% of Americans worked in agriculture, compared to 41% in 1900; and so on.

Similarly, in the white-collar workplace, new technology-driven efficiency tools were eliminating the need for many categories of . For example:

a. Instead of the separate workers that the accounts department used to need for keeping and updating its various ledgers (purchase, nominal, sales and other ledgers) integrated accounting systems were emerging, which could do these ledgers automatically – with far more accuracy, and in seconds, rather than the days and weeks that humans were using!

b. Office secretaries, who hitherto received messages for their bosses, started seeing new mobile devices that allowed clients to reach these bosses directly, wherever they might be! The devices continued to grow in sophistication, to the point where smart mobile systems started to make it possible for these bosses not only to receive messages directly, but even to treat and respond to them by themselves, wherever they might be, without reference to their secretaries!

The growing power and popularity of the internet was particularly eating into some categories of white-collar . The new “online” capabilities started allowing customers to by-pass middlemen and commission agents, and started reaching the product sources directly! Instead of going to travel agents to book our flights, we started having the capacity to do the booking ourselves online. Similarly, online shops started to emerge from which we could buy books and other products, decreasing our need for physical shops. And so on!

Clearly, these advances in technology have been displacing certain types of human jobs. But they not only allowed us to do whatever we were doing better, they were also even creating new categories of jobs – many more of them – often with second and third-order effects. For example, the factories of the 1st TTP above definitely devalued the previously prized skills of the artisans; but they created work for many others, such as low-skilled factory workers, their managers and administrative staff! In addition, they created other high-quality second

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and third-order jobs for the economy, such as:

1. The engineers constructing the factories;

2. Utility industries supplying gas, power and water to them;

3. The construction industry putting up roads and rail links;

4. Auto industry building vehicles for wheeling all the products.

5. Robust media system;

6. and brand specialists that were now needed for presenting all these goods and services to potential users; and so on.

Steve Lohr has used the case of the technology giant, Google, as a specific illustration of the second and third-order effects:

Take the Internet and Google: The search giant employs thousands of people — programmers, mathematicians, statisticians, marketing and sales people, administrators and managers. But its success ripples to create other jobs as well: service workers and suppliers of everything from computers to food. Real estate brokers and car dealers have benefited from Google’s wealth.

More broadly, the spread of Internet technology has meant that most companies have their own Web sites. The companies hire software programmers, computer technicians, graphics designers and online advertising salespeople. And the job-creating ripples continue.

Smarter computing technology, experts say, ought to make the most skilled workers — in science, the arts and business — even more productive and prosperous by freeing them from routine tasks. Their prosperity translates to spending that creates jobs in stores, schools, gyms, construction and elsewhere.

With all these people generating values and incomes, prosperity soared, leading to new demands for other goods and services – for schools, hospitals, restaurants, shops, sports and recreation; and so on – which in turn started to create their own categories of second and third-order high-quality jobs in the economy.

So even though these advances in technology did displace certain types of human jobs, they also have tended to create even many more jobs of new categories – often with second and third-order effects.

The Nations That Benefited From These Technologies

It is important to emphasise that all the foregoing benefits (the technology-driven creation of new categories of jobs and prosperity) have gone basically to the nations that that were able to board the technology train – the nations that used proactive policies to embrace technology! Even within such nations, the states, localities and cities that articulated the most proactive technology-friendly policies, usually reaped the greatest benefits.

Of particular interest to our DCs should be that these benefits have by no means, been limited to the advanced economies. I was impressed to discover in the course of this paper, that several countries that used to be low-income (such as Estonia, India, Brazil, Costa Rica, Dubai, and others) have not only benefited immensely from the technology boom, but also have in many cases, leveraged the boom to launch themselves into the “knowledge economy”!

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Unfortunately, the DCs are presently very far behind the developed economies, in terms of leveraging the modern technology! For example, according to the United Nations e-government Survey for 2014:

“The digital divide between … high and low or middle income countries is substantial … As an example in 2013, a vast majority of the population used the Internet in Sweden (94%), Estonia (79%) and Singapore (74%). This is in contrast to Costa Rica, Georgia or Egypt where less than half of the population had access to the Internet. This disparity becomes particularly acute with low-income countries such as Guinea-Bissau (3%), Madagascar (2%) or Somalia (1%)”

As we shall see shortly, any DC that wants to remain afloat in the emerging technology-driven global economy, will have no choice than to urgently and wisely strive to board the technology train!

Another Technology Turning Point Appears Imminent

If the DCs are worried about their present technological gap with the advanced economies, there is still some more bad news for them! Economists and technology futurists now believe that with the recent and spectacular advances in robotics, artificial intelligence, internet of things, and other related technologies, another major technological turning point (TTP) is imminent – with a potentially huge disruptive effect on governance and governance institutions. Geoff Colvin (2014) explains:

“Technology is advancing steadily into both ends of the spectrum, threatening workers who thought they didn’t have to worry.

“At the top end, what’s happening to lawyers is a model for any occupation involving analysis, subtle interpretation, strategizing, and persuasion. The computer incursion into the legal-discovery process is well known. In cases around the country, computers are reading millions of documents and sorting them for relevance without getting tired or distracted. But that’s just the beginning. Computers are also becoming highly skilled at searching the legal literature for appropriate precedents in a given case, far more widely and thoroughly than people can do. Humans still have to identify the legal issues involved, but as North-western University law professor John O. McGinnis points out in a recent article, “Search engines will eventually do this by themselves, and then go on to suggest the case law that is likely to prove relevant to the matter.

“Advancing even deeper into the territory of lawyerly skill, computers can already predict Supreme Court decisions better than lawyers can. As such analytical power expands in scope, computers will move nearer to the heart of what lawyers do by advising better than lawyers can on whether to sue or settle or go to trial before any court and in any type of case. Companies such as Lex Machina and Huron Legal already offer such analytical services, which are improving by the day…

“Developments at the opposite end of the skill spectrum are at least as surprising. In the physical realm, robots have been good mainly at closely prescribed, repetitive tasks — welding on an auto assembly line, as an example. That’s all changing radically. Google’s autonomous cars are an obvious example, but many more are appearing.

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You can train a Baxter robot from Rethink Robotics to do all kinds of things — pack or unpack boxes, take items to or from a conveyor belt, carry things around, count them, inspect them — just by moving its arms and hands (“end effectors”) in the desired way…

“Still more advanced is a robotic hand developed by a team from Harvard, Yale, maker of the Roomba vacuum cleaner and many other mobile robots. So fine are its motor skills that it can pick up a credit card from a table-top, put a drill bit in a drill, and turn a key. “A disabled person could say to a robot with hands, ‘Go to the kitchen and put my dinner in the microwave,’” one of the researchers, Harvard professor Robert Howe, recently told Harvard Magazine.”

Way back in June 2014, the Associated Press (AP) announced that it would use a robot to produce up to 4,440 robot-written corporate-earnings reports per quarter. That amounted to more than ten times what AP’s human reporters were then producing! Kevin Roose (2014) captures the shock waves created by that announcement:

“By this point, we’re no longer surprised when machines replace human workers in auto factories or electronics-manufacturing plants. That’s the norm. But we hoity-toity journalists had long assumed that our jobs were safe from automation. (We’re knowledge workers, after all.) So when the AP announced its new automated workforce, you could hear the panic spread to old-line news desks across the nation. “Unplug the printers, Bob! The robots are coming!”

Technology is similarly making incursions and terrorising other white-collar areas – such as post office workers, online marketers, customer service workers, anaesthesiologists, surgeons, diagnosticians, X-ray technicians, doctors, cab and commercial drivers, pilots, and investment bankers – taking over tasks, which (by most experts) only a few years ago, computers were supposed to be no good at! Erik Sherman (2015) provides more insight on the medical professionals:

“IBM's Watson, well known for its stellar performance in the TV game show “Jeopardy!”, has already demonstrated a far more accurate diagnosis rate for lung cancers than humans – 90% versus 50% in some tests. The reason is data. Keeping pace with the release of medical data could take doctors 160 hours a week, so doctors can't possibly review the amount of new insights or even bodies of clinical evidence that can give an edge in making a diagnosis …

There have already been demonstrations … of how a robotic system could potentially remove tumours from tissue. There is also at least one hair transplant robot on the market, allowing one surgeon to oversee multiple procedures at the same time.”

Frank Tobe (2015) has used Fedex, a global courier company, to provide insight on the assault on the alarm it is creating in airline pilots in the aviation industry:

“Look at FedEx. They hope that by 2020 they will have a pilot centre with three or four pilots that fly the FedEx fleet (of hundreds of planes) around the country”!

~Stefan Kip Astheimer (2015) talks about a similar onslaught on investment advisors:

"One trend in the investment industry over the last few years has been the advent of

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'robo-advisers. These are automated services that are replacing personal financial advisers, financial planners and stockbrokers for younger individuals and individuals who don't have complex investment needs."

The foregoing direct replacements of humans are not the only areas that technology is attacking jobs. The assault is all-embracing! Consider the e-Government (or simply, e-gov), which some people like to call online government, e-state, Internet government, or even digital government. It refers to the extensive use of ICT in government operations; and it appears to be “the only way to go” for the DCs in their battles with inefficiency, corruption, and similar vices! However, in the DCs where government is usually the largest employer of labour, e-gov systems will render most of these public-sector workers redundant – and simultaneously even reduce government’s need for adhoc staff very dramatically. For example, the hundreds of thousands of additional hands that a DC such as Nigeria, typically recruits to conduct general elections, will largely become unnecessary if there is an effective an e-voting system.

Benefits Of Striving For The Evolving Information Economy

It would be very dangerous for a DC to dismiss these technological developments as the problems of only the advanced nations. In the globalised world economy of today, no DC can afford to be left out. Let us look at some important benefits to the DC of promptly striving to board the technology train, under the following headings:

? Operational efficiency

? Prosperity boom

? Opportunity to leapfrog

? It is feasible

1. Operational efficiency: It is not just that technology helps government services to be more efficient and less cumbersome, it will help to free government operations in the DCs from the legendary corruption and bureaucratic frustrations typically associated with them. Consider the issue of the foreign investment that the DCs are gasping for: If simple business registration requires 18 procedures and 135 days in Equatorial Guinea (according to the World Bank’s Doing Business report), compared to Peru, where one can now get all the required business permits in a day, the preference of investors should be obvious!

2. Prosperity boom: The creation, distribution, and application of knowledge — which are the basis of the knowledge economy — have been the most important driver of the booming prosperity in recent decades; and this prosperity has been flowing to the nations that have keyed into the technology train. This phenomenon is also expected to continue into the future. Getting on board will open the DC to the kind of opportunities that are transforming many hitherto poor countries such as India, China, Vietnam, Argentina, Brazil, Costa Rica, Chile, Indonesia, Estonia, Korea, Mexico, and Puerto Rico.

3. Opportunity to leapfrog: Our DCs today have an opportunity to leapfrog the learning curves that the developed economies had to pass through technologically, to get to where they are today. For example, during the past four decades, the developed economies crunched technologically from mainframe computers to mini computers, then to desktop computers, then to laptops and now to smartphones. The early users of e-gov crunched through these earlier generations of computers (mostly the desktops)! In those days, anybody who wanted to do anything online, would first have to gain access to a computer system!

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However, what is happening today all over the world, is that many people in the DCs, who are not otherwise computer literate, have become happy mobile phone users! In many DCs, “mobile” is becoming the choice means of communication between individuals – meaning that not only can a mobile-based e-gov solution become available to a DC at a fraction of what it cost the advanced economies to initiate their own e-gov programmes, it can also become available straight away to a sizable proportion of the DC’s population!

4. It is feasible: It may appear too far-fetched, talking “modern technology” to a typical DC that is not even coping with the basic challenges of poverty, illiteracy, and poor infrastructure! However, a transition is possible, and that is what many hitherto poor nations are doing – including India, China, Vietnam, Brazil, Costa Rica, Argentina, Chile, Indonesia, Estonia, Korea, Mexico, and Puerto Rico! And they are in some cases even distinguishing themselves. For example:

a. Brazil is globally a leading nation in electronic voting system (EVS). Lin and Espinoza (2014) point out that since 2000, EVS has been the only voting method in Brazil’s general elections; and that no advanced nation has achieved this feat!

b. In the UN’s (United Nation’s) e-government survey for 2014, two Asian “Tigers” topped the world – South Korea (1st) and Singapore (3rd)! They came ahead of United States and European nations.

Indeed, an interesting paradox of the knowledge economy, is that despite being all about technology, it is not as capital intensive as a DC would ordinarily dread! It is in many cases, more about leadership, knowledge and ideas – as the phenomenon of the so-called “virtual companies” would illustrate: A “virtual company” is one that exists and is doing active business through the internet, but does not have physical offices anywhere. A creative person in the DC can take time to design an effective website on the internet, and use it to trade. In the internet, it can afford to rub shoulders with the big multinationals, even without having much of physical assets! This is possible because the company provides its customers all the information they need about whatever it is selling, so the customers have no need for its premises! What the company is selling may even be located in other countries and continents!

Consequences Of Failing To Strive For The Information Economy

Despite the foregoing compelling incentives for a DC to strive to board the technology train, the consequences of not doing so are even more dreadful! As we can confirm from today’s popular apps, such as “Twitter”, “Facebook” and “Whatsapp”, it costs practically nothing today to process information in one country, and transmit it to people in other countries or even continents; and this phenomenon is taking place all over the world! This free flow of information across nations is blurring national boundaries, and integrating the nations of the world economically and even socially. People located in different countries (and even continents) can now work together as if they are in the same building! For example, the staff of a multinational company (MNC) in India and their counterparts in the United States can now work as if they are in adjacent rooms of the same building! This is globalisation; and it is already eating into many DCs, without them even being aware of what is happening. Let us use three examples to illustrate some of the things already going on:

? Offshore migration of local jobs;

? Global competition for local jobs; and

? Merciless global poaching

1. Offshore migration of local jobs: The implication of this phenomenon is that an MNC with operations in a DC now has the technology to domicile some of the tasks associated with its operations in the DC (for example, the administrative and logistics aspects of the operations) in another country. This means for example, that a multinational oil company operating in Nigeria, can now easily choose to domicile all the administrative and logistics

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work for its Nigerian operations, in another country (or continent) that is more conducive – in terms of corruption, bureaucratic bottlenecks, availability of well trained workforce, and so on. In this way, the MNC may only use skeletal staff in Nigeria for its field operations. And its staff in another country will be working with their counterparts in Nigeria as if they are in the same building!

Note that when an MNC chooses to do its DC’s work from another country or continent, it is effectively using the money it generates from the DC to enrich that other country – because the economic activities and prosperity associated with the MNC’s operations in the DC, will follow the jobs to that other nation! That is how merciless the global economy has become to nations that fail to strive to become conducive!

This is also bad news for those DCs that are only counting on their natural resources (such as oil and solid minerals) to attract MNCs. In the past, such an MNC would domicile everything needed for its operations in such a DC, inside that DC – which usually boosted employment and economic activities in the DC. Today however, the MNC can just as easily carry out the administrative and support tasks from any other country or continent of the world – and only use skeletal field staff in the DC!

2. Global Competition for local jobs: In the past, local professionals seeking jobs from MNCs needed to slug it out amongst themselves for whatever openings were available. But since an MNC can now as easily carry out its local DC jobs from other countries, the local professionals in the DC will now not only have to square up among themselves, but increasingly stack well against the professionals in those other countries.

This means that the DC’s local professionals will increasingly have to become globally competitive, even for what should have been their local jobs in their own country! If for example, the DC cannot come up with a globally competitive workforce, the MNC can domicile its support operations in the other nations that can! That is how merciless the global economy can be to nations that ignore the technology train

3. Merciless global poaching: There are other consequences awaiting a DC that fails to strive to have a competitive workforce. Each time somebody makes an online purchase in the DC, the implication is that somebody else in Asia, Europe, America (or wherever else the seller may be) has made a quiet non-physical export to the DC! In many cases, the people through whom we are making the purchase may not even be the owners of what we are buying! They may only have just created their websites that simply link buyers to sellers! In fact, in many cases, people selling items on the internet, may be selling what they themselves have not seen physically! Somebody in India could just be selling something in the DC that is located in faraway America, Israel, Asia, or Europe!

Even an online transaction as simple as downloading anti-virus software has a similar implication! That “downloading” implies that somebody in Asia, Europe, America (or wherever else the seller may be) has just made a quiet non-physical export to the DC! Thousands of this can take place all over the DC during a given period, without the government even being aware that it is making imports! That is how merciless the global economy can be to nations that ignore the technology train!

Notice also that such software downloading also means that the foreign developers have denied work to the local software engineers in the DC, who would have provided the solutions locally, or at least come to do the installation! Not only that a clever foreign professional has made a quiet export to the DC, they have even remotely done the installation, from the comfort of their own country – further reducing the DC’s need for its own local software engineers!

Even the ringtones that the DC’s telephone subscribers download (including those featuring their local songs) could easily have been designed and packaged by smart professionals in other countries and continents, such that the money citizens are paying for the ringtones are

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actually going to smart foreigners located in their countries! That shows how technology has collapsed national borders – and become merciless to nations that ignore the train!

The way Forward

In view of the technology-driven opportunities and threats as highlighted in this paper, every DC should avoid finding itself in the wrong side of technology and globalization! Here are some suggestions:

1. Education: The starting point is immediate and serious attention to education! In some DCs, leaders want the vast majority of citizens and their children to remain uneducated, while such leaders send their own children abroad, to some of the best schools in the world. Such leaders want to remain rulers unchallenged; and thereafter, their own children should also be able to take over leadership, unchallenged!

Education is a human right and a vital element in combating poverty and exploitation. It is also a force for social change, and a vital element for promoting democracy and human rights. Low literacy levels, even in the advanced countries, always go with poor neighbourhoods, poverty, menial jobs, poor job prospects, low salaries, and crime. President Barack Obama (2015) put it this way:

? “…History shows that the nations that do best are the ones that invest in the education of their people. You see, in this information age, jobs can flow anywhere, and they typically will flow to where workers are literate and highly skilled and online.”

The chief scientist for Salesforce.com, JP Rangaswami (2014), similarly put it this way:

? “The effects (of emerging technology) will be different in different economies (which themselves may look different from today’s political boundaries). Driven by revolutions in education and in technology, the very nature of work will have changed radically—but only in economies that have chosen to invest in education, technology, and related infrastructure.”

Clearly, education, especially the right kind of education, will hold the key to future prosperity, and will be vital to the DCs in coping with the looming technology tsunami.

2. Telecoms deregulation: A vital step for launching into the technology arena, is high national mobile penetration – which in many cases, telecoms multinationals will provide at no cost to a DC! In fact, these multinationals have been paying license fees to nations for the privilege to provide them with mobile services! For example, MTN and other telecoms companies each paid a whopping $285 million to the Nigerian government (as license fee), for the right to come into the country and give citizens the telecoms services that they needed desperately. Therefore, a DC that has not deregulated its telecoms sector, can start with the deregulation!

3. Leveraging Diaspora linkages: Some DCs have thousands of citizens in the advanced nations, who originally travelled there for education, as refugees, or as a part of the famed brain drain. A DC’s investment promotion agency can facilitate liaison programs with these people (especially those that have risen to influential corporate positions in their foreign lands). If properly incentivized, these Diasporans can help in channeling investments projects to their home nations. More importantly, they can help in packaging their home nations to become more attractive for foreign investments.

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Erran Carmel gives some insight on the role that Indian professionals in the Diaspora have been playing in this regard:

? “The success of the Indian software industry is due in part to the successful and well-placed diaspora of Indians in US high- tech firms. This generation of Indians came to the US for education, stayed on and rose to influential positions in these firms. We see these diaspora linkages in other countries that have succeeded in high technology - Israel, Taiwan, Korea, China, and Ireland. The “brain drain” has become a ‘brain gain’ in the ties and know-how that have been forged between firms in the home country and the country of the diaspora”

4. Creating local linkages: If an advanced country wants to provide aid to a DC (or is seeking to sell a product to the DC), the DC can specifically ask that a given chunk of the project be outsourced to local firms, as a way of helping to create local capacity in the DC.

5. Technology clusters: A DC under pressure from inadequate resources and inadequate infrastructure, can consider creating a pilot technology zone (or technology park) much like the industrial or free-trade zones that many of them already have. The DC can then provide a relatively higher level of infrastructure in the zone (power supply, connectivity, security, and so on) than in the rest of the country.

In particular, software outsourcing in today’s global economy requires abundant, reliable, and cheap telephone and broadband data communication connections. The cluster will serve as a vital local technology incubation point, which in due course (especially with other encouragements) can begin to attract outsourced jobs from the developed economies.

All things considered, it is wise to locate such a park near a major university or other research institutions, so that the cluster can take advantage of the university system, which creates knowledge (through research), and produces the scientists, engineers, and other skilled individuals it will need; and the university (being itself a vital node for the creation and diffusion of knowledge in the knowledge economy) can benefit from the enhanced level of infrastructure.

Since coming to CSU, I have heard that the world-famous Silicon Valley may have such a symbiotic relationship with Stanford University!

References

1. Colvin, Geoff: In the future, will there be any work left for people to do? Fortune, June 16, 2014;

2. Lohr, Steve: Jobs Created and Displaced, June 24, 2010

3. Rotman, David: How Technology Is Destroying Jobs, MIT Technology Review, June 12, 2013

4. State University of New York: The Future of e-Government, The Research Foundation of State University of New York, 2012

5. Roose, Kevin: Robots Are Invading the News Business, and It’s Great for Journalists, NY Magazine, July 11, 2014

6. Sherman, Erik: 5 White-Collar Jobs Robots Already Have Taken, Fortune, February 25, 2015

7. Tobe, Frank: Please see Sherman, Erik

8. Lin, Gloria & Espinoza, Nicole: Electronic Voting Case Studies, Stanford University, 2007

9. World Bank: Doing Business reports; various editions

10. Astheimer, Stefan Kip: See Sherman, Erik

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