ELECTRICITY SUPPLY AND ITS IMPLICATIONS ON PEACE AND SECURITY IN GHANA: A CASE STUDY OF ACCRA METROPOLITAN AREA.

Electricity supply is generally believed to have implications on peace and security in a Country. The purpose of the study was to assess the implications of electricity supply on peace and security within the country. In achieving the research objective, the study was guided by the following research questions, thus what is the current state of Ghana’s electricity demand and supply, what are the causes of the erratic power supply within the country, what is the effect these unannounced blackouts have on peace and security, what measurers have been instituted to arrest the situation and possible recommendations to rectify the situation. The study adopted the case study designed and employed both qualitative and quantitative approaches. The sample size was made up 1000 respondents from the six sub metros in the study area. Purposive sampling, stratified, simple random and snow ball sampling techniques were employed in the selection of respondents. The findings of the study reveals that respondents suffered from home discomfort, decrease in performance, increase in expenditure, and stress emanating from disruptions to power supply. 19.5% of commercial users of electricity lamented having to deal with increasing cost of production and operations and expenditure during power outages. It is therefore recommended that new avenues and sources of generating power be sought after to enhance the power generation mix such that consumers would be able to enjoy reliable power supply which would enhance the reliability of power such that in the event where certain power plants have to be shut down, it wouldn’t have considerable impact on the operations of individuals, businesses and firms.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Frequent power cuts termed “dumsor’’ in Ghana has ignited the concern of many Ghanaians in recent times. Needless to say, this is not the only problem facing the country but power cut has been given prominence in most discussions of late because of it peace and security implication in Ghana. Hydro power which has been the main source of electrical power for the people of Ghana has faced crisis in recent years. Hydroelectric power (HEP) dominance in the national power generational-mix; accounts for about 58.4 percent (Awotwi, 2011). HEP has not been reliable due to unfavorable rainfall regimes and increasing temperatures resulting from climate change. Gyau-Boakye and Tumbulto, (2001) identified that climate change has reduced the volumes of the Volta Lakes tributaries by more than 20 percent. Their comparisons of runoffs for two time periods show reductions in mean stream flows of 32.5 percent at Saboba on the River Oti and 23.1 percent at Nawuni on the White Volta (Gyau-Boakye & Tumbulto, 2000). Niasse, (2005) also adds that West Africa’s major rivers (Niger, Senegal and Volta) have experienced concomitant decrease in average discharge of between 40 to 60 percent. The 1983/84, 1998 and 2007 erratic rainfall regimes which rendered the hydropower electricity HEP dams ineffective with the subsequent power rationing exercises is the evidence in support of the glooming impact of climate change on Hydroelectric power (HEP) supply in Ghana. Compounding Hydroelectric power HEP’s ineffectiveness is the increasing demand for electricity resulting from the ever-increasing number of consumers (Energy, 2010).

Power supply in many African countries is generally unreliable and high disruption costs, which affects peace and security. Unreliable power supply leads to disruptions in production, loss of perishable goods, damage to sensitive equipment, loss of orders and threats to peace and security (Oshikoya and others). Despite the fact that Africa is endowed with the widest possible range of energy sources (solar, coal, natural gas, petroleum, hydro, geothermal, nuclear et cetera.), the continent’s power sector remains severely underdeveloped and energy consumption, in general and electricity consumption in particular, are relatively very low (Economic Commission For Africa, 2004). The problem with Africa’s electricity sector is not that of scarcity, but lack of infrastructure, proper financing mechanisms and regulations that are important, so as to make markets work in support of energy for sustainable development (UNDP, 2004). According to a United Nations Development Programme UNDP (2004), most power utilities in many countries are state-owned monopolies and thus, low tariffs and fiscal constraints have resulted in little investment and poor maintenance of infrastructure. Power outages, power surges, brown-outs, and load shedding remain common features in most countries.

In Ghana, Power outage, an uncomfortable phenomenon mostly occur unannounced and without recourse to consumers. There have been instances where consumers have had to stay several days without power despite the power rationing schedules published by the Electricity Company of Ghana (ECG) stating clearly that Consumer were entitled to power supply at those times. The Ghana National Commission for UNESCO also estimates the rate of growth in the demand for electric power in Ghana at seven (7) percent. However, there is no corresponding increase in the power generation capacity which has resulted in a tight demand-supply balance with limited reserve margin, leading to periodic blackouts throughout the country (Braimah & Amponsah, 2012). The mismatch between demand and supply with the continuous widening gap between supply of and demand for electricity (due to the continuous connections of consumers to the national electricity grid) has frequent resulted in intermittent power supply.

As a developing country, Ghana’s electricity demand has for long, been relatively low, although demand has been rising in recent times due to increasing economic growth, urbanization and industrial activities. According to Ghana’s Energy Commission, electricity accounted for about 9 percent of the country’s 9.50 Megatons total final energy consumption in 2007. Biomass and petroleum fuels accounted for 64 percent and 27 percent respectively of final energy consumption (Gyamfi, Modinou & Djordjevic, 2015). About 65 percent of the country’s electricity is generated from a large hydropower station, with the remaining 35 percent provided mainly from an array of thermal power plants that operate on gas, diesel and light crude oil. The national access to electricity is currently about 71 percent, with the access of urban inhabitants at 78 percent and the rural population access rate of less than 30 percent. The government’s national electrification scheme policy objective is to electrify all communities with populations above 500 by the year 2020 (Ghanaweb).

Ineffective power supply have a negative effect on the economy of a country as economic activities are stalled. Most SME’s end up folding up as they cannot rely on alternative power sources as these come at a higher price. Businesses that rely on alternative sources of power, run at a high operating cost which impacts negatively on the business performance and sustainability. In a bid to remain in operations, businesses are forced to lay off workers which add up to the unemployment rate within the country. Because the unemployed must survive, in cases where there are no alternative work available, these group of peoples might resort to crime which would disturb the peace and security within the country. Power outages and unreliable power supply also creates the perfect avenue for criminals as in the cover of the immense darkness coupled with the inability of security systems to operate without power, provide the perfect opportunity for criminals to undertake their activities witnessed in the crime wave within the 2012 to 2015 power crises in the country. From the individual perspective, because majority of the equipment’s employed are electricity dependent, ineffective power supply creates a situation where individuals cannot use their electronic equipment and gadgets which brings about discomfort on the part of the individual. It is therefore in this regard that this study seeks to through more light on the relationship between electricity supply and peace and security.

1.2. Problem Statemen 

For almost three years now Ghana has been garbling erratic power supply a situation which experts have described arguably as the worst in the country’s history. “Dumsor” (which literally means “on and off”) is a popular Ghanaian term used to describe persistent electric power outages as have a result of insufficient power production to meet power needs of the population growth of the country. The term gained popularity in 2009 when water levels in the Akosombo Dam dropped significantly, leading to low power production from hydro power .This consequently led to load shedding exercise. Unfortunately, this exercises has since continued much to the consternation of many Ghanaians. This has plunged the country deeper into a major power crisis. Leading to all drugs that need refrigeration have become potential hazards domestic accidents are on the increase because of dumsor: children sustaining severe burns from lit candles, couples dying unpardonable deaths from generator smoke inhalation, houses burning to the ground from dumsor-linked infernos.

The woes of electricity consumers continued when the West African Gas Pipeline Company (WAGPCo), in August 2012, declared emergency major works on its gas operations as a result of damaged pipelines in Lome, Togo. The WAGPCo supplies cheap gas to the Thermal power plants in Takoradi and Tema. In-turn, the thermal sources generate almost 30 percent of Ghana’s power needs. This means with the disruption of Gas supply by WAGPCo, the 30 percent supply of electricity though thermal plants have been disrupted reducing further, the power supply to consumers in Ghana, while the hydro-power generators take the remaining bulk of the supply. The severity of the disruption in gas supply directly impacted on the capacity of the country’s power generation because the thermal plants were virtually crippled. Due to the shortfall, the utility company electricity company of Ghana (ECG) was forced to ration power to consumers.

Power supply is a very important asset to the nation. The problem is that the rationing of power is done without due regard for its security implications in the country .The study therefore examined the short fall in energy supply and its implication on security.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

1.3.1 General Objectives of the Study

The main objective of this study is to analyze electricity supply and its implication on peace and security in Ghana focusing on Accra Metropolitan Area.

1.3.2 The Specific objectives of this Study

The specific objectives are:

·         Analyze the effect of electricity supply and its implication on peace and security in Accra metropolitan.

·         Provide general overview of erratic electricity in Ghana.

·        To analyze the course of electricity supply in Accra metropolitan.

·         Provider recommendation to deal with the erratic supply in Ghana.

·        Contribute to the literature on electricity supply and national security.

1.4. Research Questions

 This study provided answers to the following questions:

·        What is the state of Ghana’s electricity demand and supply?

·        What are the causes of erratic electricity supply on security in Ghana?

·        What are the effects of the frequent and unannounced blackouts on the peace and security in Accra metropolitan area

·        What measures have successive governments instituted to address the energy shortfall?

·        What recommendations can be provided to assist government manage the energy shortfall and improve national security?

1.5. Significance of the Study

In Africa, not much studies have been conducted with the aim of determining the effect of erratic power supply on peace and security despite the fact that power outages are almost the norm in Ghana and most parts of Africa. As such this study would provide vital information and serve as the bases for further research on electricity supply and its implications on peace and security. This study will also document the relationship between electricity supply and peace and security, highlighting how power outages influence in a negative way, peace and security. The finding from the study would also be vital to the security services. As the pioneers of rule of law, peace and security, the findings and recommendations from the study will be instrumental in the strategies employed by the various security services, especially the Police when making their rounds during periods of power outages.

The study will also be instrumental to the government and the various power production and distribution companies thus VRA, GRIDCo and ECG, informing them on the security threats and how power outages influence criminal activities within the community, necessitating the need for immediate redress of the problem.

1.6. Definition of the Key Concepts

Peace: is absence of physical, psychological and structural violence plus presence of justice (Sponsel, 1996 pp.98) “...peace can be defined ideally as the dynamic processes that lead to the relative conditions of the absence of direct and indirect violence, plus the presence of freedom, equality, economic and social justice, cooperation, and harmony.

Indicators of peace

Peace is when people are able to resolve their conflicts without violence and can work together to improve the quality of their lives. Peace is when:

·        Everyone lives in safety, without fear or threat of violence, and no form of violence is tolerated in law or in practice.

·        Everyone is equal before the law, the systems for justice are trusted and fair and effective laws protect people’s rights.

·        Everyone is able to participate in shaping political decisions and the government is accountable to the people.

·        Everyone has fair and equal access to the basic needs for their wellbeing – such as food, clean water, shelter, education, healthcare and a decent living environment.

·        Everyone has an equal opportunity to work and make a living, regardless of gender, ethnicity or any other aspect of identity.

Security: is taken to be about the pursuit of freedom from threat and the ability of states and societies to maintain their independent identity and their functional integrity against forces of change, which they see as hostile. The bottom line of security is survival, but it also reasonably includes a substantial range of concerns about the conditions of existence. Quite where this range of concerns ceases to merit the urgency of the “security” label (which identifies threats as significant enough to warrant emergency action and exceptional measures including the use of force) and becomes part of everyday uncertainties of life is one of the difficulties of the (concept’– (Barry Buzan, ), New Patterns of Global Security in the Twenty-first Century “International Affairs, 67.3 (1991), pp. 432-433.)

Reliability: The mission-oriented definition of the term reliability is "the probability of a device or system performing its purpose adequately for the period of time intended under the operating conditions encountered". Reliability as applied to power systems is a measure of the ability of the system to meet the load demand by providing an adequate supply of electrical energy. “Availability” is often used as one measure of reliability. Availability is defined as the percentage of time a customer is provided with uninterrupted power. Availability is considered as a subset of reliability as it only provides information about annual interruption duration and not about interruption frequency.

Interruption or outage Interruption or outage is defined as the complete loss of supply voltage or load.Depending on its duration, an interruption is categorized as the instantaneous, momentary or sustained. Interruptions or outage can be planned or unplanned.

Unplanned outages if the occurrence time of the interruption has not been selected, then the interruption is unplanned. An emergency unplanned outage is a result of the loss of a section of the power network which may occur without prior indication.

Planned outages Planned interruption occurs at a selected times less inconvenient for customers and the customers have been notified beforehand of the interruption. A planned outage occurs when electrical lines or equipment have to be temporarily taken out of service for repair or to allow network maintenance and alterations. Unless undertaken in an emergency situation, a planned outage will be scheduled in advance, and affected customers will be made aware of the outage before it occurs. Every effort is made to undertake planned outages during the times which will create least inconvenience to customers. But in some instances this is not always possible.

1.7. Outline of Chapters

This study is structured into chapters. Chapter One covers the Introduction to the study, statement of the problem, objectives of study, research questions, justification of the study, scope, definition of key concepts, outline of chapters and limitation of the study. In Chapter Two, the review of related literature is presented followed by a conceptualization of terms and the theoretical framework. Chapter Three presents the methodology of the study which includes the sources from which data were collected, method of data collection, highlights design of the ( in terms of the technique questionnaire as an entrustment of data) study population, sampling procedures and rationale, Sample Size and Justification, Ethical Considerations and Limitations of the Study. Chapter Four presents the results of the study and analysis which follow the objectives of the study, nature of the results obtained and also the testing. Chapter Five consists of summary, conclusions and recommendations.

References:

Abayomi,W.(2012). Nigeria’s power supply security. Retrieved from https://www.myndff.com/PolicyDialogue/Dialogue.aspx?Edition=56

Adegbulugbe, A. O., & Akinbami, J. F. K. (1995, May). Urban household energy use patterns in Nigeria. In Natural Resources Forum (Vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 125-132).Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

https://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-8947.1995.tb00600.x

Adenikinju, A. F. (2003). Electric infrastructure failures in Nigeria: A survey-based analysis of the costs and adjustment responses. Energy policy, 31(14), 1519-1530.

https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0301-4215(02)00208-2

Buzan, Barry. "New Patterns of Global Security in the Twenty-First Century." International Affairs (Royal Institute of International Affairs 1944-) 67.3 (1991): 431-451.

Buzan, Barry. (2012) People, States and Fear: An Agenda For International Security Studies in the Post-Cold War Era. 1st edion 1981, 2nd Edition . Hertfordshire: Harvester Wheatsheaf , 1991 and 2008 with a new preface from the author.

Energy Commission of Nigeria and United Nations Development Programme. (ECN-UNDP) (2005). Renewable energy master plan: Final draft report. Retrieved from

https://www.iceednigeria.org/REMP%20Final%20Report.pdf

Ekpo, U. N., Chuku, C. A., & Effiong, E. L. (2011). The dynamics of electricity demand and consumption in Nigeria: Application of the bounds testing approach. Current Research Journal of Economic Theory,3(2), 43-52.

Kubota, T., Jeong, S., Toe, D. H. C., & Ossen D. R. (2011). Energy consumption and air-conditioning usage in residential buildings of Malaysia. Journal of International Development and Cooperation, 17(3), 61-69.