Effects of urban society on marine resources: Implementation of laws and legislation to protect the resources

Marine areas covered around 71% of the planet’s surface. With more than half the world’s population now living within 100km of the coast, it’s not surprising that our activities are taking their toll. Human impacts have increased along with our rapid population growth, substantial developments in technology and significant changes in land use. Toxic pollution from cities and fields, anthropogenic waste disposal, excessive nutrients and oil spills, increasingly threaten living and nonliving resources in the coastal and ocean environments adversely impacting and fundamentally changing natural ecosystems, and even threatening human health. As a result, the modern law of the sea has been developed and the growing concern for the condition of the oceans have given rise to a number of legal regimes addressing problems of the marine environment.

Solid wastes: Solid wastes cover a wide assortment of waste ma-terials, from construction debris to the sludge solids from sewage treatment plants. The dumping of sewage sludge has increased sig-nificantly during the past few decades. Sewage sludge is the mix of liquids and solids produced dur-ing sewage treatment, and its disposal has been a problem of growing concern. We know now that many harmful elements attach to particles, as when DDT and PCB adsorb to silts suspended in fluids or when heavy metal ions attach to clay particles. Thus sewage sludge is really a concentration of toxic ele-ments. Field research shows that sewage sludge dumped in shallow continental shelf waters has a long-lasting impact on the surrounding benthic com-munity. In some cases, the residual organic material in the dumped sludge may demand and consume too much of the local supply of oxygen dissolved in the seawater, creating respiratory problems in local marine life.

Plastic waste: Since they take decades to degrade, plastics build up progressively in the environment. Shore and seabirds become entangled in discarded six-pack carrier rings, they feed their chicks plastic packing pellets, tangles of used fishing line snare fish, whales are snarled in ghost nets and boaters can have plastic bags pulled into their engine cooling systems or suffer having lines wrapped around propellers. If you desire having a remarkable experience, try getting a mad sea otter out of a discarded fishing net.  

Oil Spill: Oil is the most common pollutant in the oceans. More than 3 million metric tons of oil contaminates the sea every year. The majority of oil pollution in the oceans comes from land. Runoff and waste from cities, industry, and rivers carries oil into the ocean. Ships cause about a third of the oil pollution in the oceans when they wash out their tanks or dump their bilge water. It is an unfortunate byproduct of the storage and transportation of oil and petroleum is the occasional spill. Marine oil spill is a serious consequence of off-shore oil drilling and its oceanic transportation. Spill control firms specialize in the prevention, containment and cleanup of industrial oil spills.                       

Plant nutrients: Nutrient additions through the disposal of domestic wastes and via the water runoff from agricultural watersheds where phosphate and nitrate fertilizers are applied to coastal waters have the greatest impact when they cause specific plants to grow excessively, to the point that species diversity is reduced as favored plants overwhelm other spe-cies. In freshwater lakes and rivers this impact is called "Eutrophication". Wherever it occurs, the dy-namics of the entire food chain can be altered. In fact, one of the procedures that biologists use first when studying a potential impact is to measure whether species diversity in the food chain has been reduced, that is, whether some species have been eliminated. Another measure of impact is a sudden change in abundance of one species over another.

Onshore structures: Pilings and piers necessary to support bridges or nearshore components of the alternatives could alter the nearshore migration pathways of smaller juvenile salmonids (e.g., pink and chum salmon) or other marine species. Impacts could be reduced by locating nearshore components in a manner that leaves a nearshore migration corridor (e.g., down to at least -5 feet MLLW) near the extreme low-water line, clear of obstruction. Deeper piers or pilings would allow free passage of marine species migrating along shorelines and would develop an Epifauna typical of natural deeper hard-bottom areas.

Radioactivity: Here we shall touch only on two aspects: first, the discharge of low-level radioactive nuclides from many dispersed sources, with the corresponding question of its long-term impact; and, second, the question of deep-sea disposal of high-level radioactivity, such as that encountered in spent reactor fuel and in spent reactors themselves.

Over fishing: Overfishing has also been widely reported due to increases in the volume of fishing hauls to feed a quickly growing number of consumers. This has led to the breakdown of some sea ecosystems and several fishing industries whose catch has been greatly diminished. The extinction of many species has also been reported. According to an FAO estimate, over 70% of the world’s fish species are either fully exploited or depleted. According to Nitin Desai, Secretary General of the World Summit on Sustainable Development, "Over-fishing cannot continue, the depletion of fisheries poses a major threat to the food supply of millions of people."

Tourism: Impacts of marine tourism can be broadly categorized as ecological, social and cultural. The major types of marine tourism impacts include:

• Coastal tourism development (population pressures, construction activities);
• Island-based tourism infrastructure (marinas, sewage discharge, construction);
• Marine-based tourism infrastructure (pontoons, moorings, fish feeding);
• Boat-induced damage (anchoring, ship grounding, litter, waste discharge);
• Water based activities (diving, snorkeling, reef walking, fishing);
• Wildlife interactions (seabirds, turtle-watching, whale-watching).

IMPLEMENTATION OF LAWS AND LEGISLATION TO PROTECT THE RESOURCES  

For our survival we depend on the seas. They are also essential for our economic prosperity, social well-being and quality of life. The ocean is full of life, from tiny algae to the largest living creature: Balaenoptera musculus, the blue whale. The most dangerous marine creature, however, is homo sapiens, whose warships have teeth sharper than any shark. Correspondingly, the most complicated element of the ocean environment is the labyrinthine system of laws and regulations that humans have developed to govern it.

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS): UNCLOS provides rules for the regulation of all uses of oceans and seas. UNCLOS also establishes a framework for the development of conservation and management measures concerning marine resources and scientific research within the exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of States as well as on the high seas. Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement – UNFSA). UNFSA imposes obligations on Parties to protect the marine environment and requires States to ensure the sustainable utilization of fish stocks. UNFSA require States to apply the precautionary approach and adopt appropriate measures to maintain or restore populations of species that are part of the same ecosystem.

Ramsar Convention: The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands. It is also known as the Convention on Wetlands. Its mission was -the conservation and wise use of all wetlands through local and national actions and international cooperation, as a contribution towards achieving sustainable development throughout the world.

London Convention: The Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matter1972, commonly called the "London Convention" or "LC '72" and also abbreviated as Marine Dumping, is an agreement to control pollution of the sea by dumping and to encourage regional agreements supplementary to the Convention. It covers the deliberate disposal at sea of wastes or other matter from vessels, aircraft, and platforms. It does not cover discharges from land-based sources such as pipes and outfalls, wastes generated incidental to normal operation of vessels, or placement of materials for purposes other than mere disposal, providing such disposal is not contrary to aims of the Convention. It entered into force in 1975. As of 2013, there were 87 Parties to the Convention.

MARPOL Convention: The International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) is the main international convention covering prevention of pollution of the marine environment by ships from operational or accidental causes. The MARPOL Convention was adopted on 2 November 1973 at IMO. The Protocol of 1978 was adopted in response to a spate of tanker accidents in 1976-1977. As the 1973 MARPOL Convention had not yet entered into force, the 1978 MARPOL Protocol absorbed the parent Convention. The combined instrument entered into force on 2 October 1983. In 1997, a Protocol was adopted to amend the Convention and a new Annex VI was added which entered into force on 19 May 2005. MARPOL has been updated by amendments through the years.

Convention for the Conservation and Management of Highly Migratory Fish Stocks in the Western and Central Pacific Ocean (WCPT Convention): The objective of the WCPT Convention is to ensure the long-term and effective conservation and sustainable use of highly Transform AQORAU 2 Obligations to protect marine ecosystems under international conventions and other legal instruments – T. Aqorau migratory fish stocks in the western and central Pacific, in accordance with UNCLOS and UNFSA.

FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fishing: The FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fishing is a non-legally binding code, but with important links to UNCLOS. The Code expects States to implement appropriate measures within the precautionary principle framework to minimize waste, discards, ghost-fishing, and negative impacts of fishing on associated or dependent species.

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): Although CBD does not specifically address fisheries, it applies to all terrestrial and marine biodiversity, and, as such affects fisheries. CBD outlines measures for conserving biodiversity, including in situ and ex situ conservation measures. General measures for conserving and ensuring ecologically sustainable development include developing national policies, strategies and programs reflecting the principles espoused in the Convention.

Convention on Conservation of Nature in the South Pacific: The objective of the Convention is to conserve, utilize and develop the natural resources of the South Pacific region through careful planning and management for the benefit of present and future generations.

The Reagan Proclamation: The United States has refused to ratify the LOS Convention (1985). Instead, President Reagan in 1983 issued unilateral claim to a 200-nmi EEZ for the United States, which is almost identical to the EEZ provision of the 1982 LOS. In effect, the united position is to accept the EEZ as customary international law, but it rejects entirely the idea of an international authority over the seabed resources.

National Laws and Legislation for Protecting the Marine Environment: In Bangladesh the following Acts, Rules made by various ministries over the decades supporting coastal and marine environment:

• The Marine Fisheries Ordinance, 1983
• The Marine Fisheries Rules, 1983
• The Environmental Conservation Act, 1995
• The Territorial Waters & Maritime Zones Act, 1974
• Territorial Waters and Maritime Zones Rules, 1977
• Bangladesh Merchant Shipping Ordinance, 1983
• Bangladesh Code of Conduct for Responsible Fishing drafted (in the line with FAO's CCRF) for immediate implementation
• Bangladesh Coastal Zone Policy, 2005
• Inland Water Transport Policy (IWTP), 2009

In the end, it can be said in accordance to The Ocean World of Jacques Cousteau, 1975- “Man has become by far the greatest predator of all time. As populations mount and land-grown food supplies are unable to feed the growing numbers of the hungry, man is turning more and more to the sea for his food. On land man has slowly learned to conserve the soil lest it stop producing crops. But on the ocean, man is a hunter only. He takes but returns little. If the bounty of the sea is not to be exhausted, man must learn to farm it as he farms the land, by sowing as well as reaping”.