Effective Positive Interventions

All human beings inherently strive for happiness whether consciously or not (Seligman, 2002). However, psychology, the scientific study of the mind and behavior, has traditionally focused almost exclusively on the alleviation of pain of clinical patients, rather than on enhancing positive aspects of life (Boniwell, 2008). While alleviating pain is undeniably crucial, the academic field dedicated to understanding the mind should equally prioritize exploring what goes right in life and how to amplify these aspects (Seligman, 2011). This inquiry includes discerning what is genetic and what is trainable, and the relative contributions of nature and nurture (Lyubomirsky, 2007).

In a rapidly changing world, where more individuals have their basic needs met, yet are simultaneously exposed to increasing adversities and unnatural environments, the advent of Positive Psychology (PP) is timely. It gained momentum in 1998 under the leadership of Martin Seligman, a renowned abnormal psychologist and then President of the American Psychological Association (APA). Although Abraham Maslow previously initiated a similar direction in 1968 during his presidency at the APA, the timing was not conducive to its widespread acceptance (M. Seligman, personal communication, October 8, 2023). Since its inception, PP has experienced significant growth, incorporating aspects from Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Jungian Psychology, and Humanistic Psychology (Boniwell, 2008). It can be seen as the fourth wave of psychology - transpersonal - by incorporating other waves and focusing on self-actualization.

A fundamental aspect of PP is its interventions (PPIs), designed to enhance individual well-being; this paper will delve into its definition, theoretical foundation, and most effective application. Furthermore, the discussion will extend to how professionals can assist their clients in implementing these interventions, tailoring them to best suit individual needs and circumstances.

Definition of Positive Interventions

The quest for happiness, a cornerstone of human existence, has been so deeply ingrained in our societal fabric that it is treasured alongside life and liberty in the United States Declaration of Independence (Bao & Lyubomirsky, 2014). This enduring pursuit has given rise to the development of PPIs. As Pawelski (2020) elucidates, PPIs are deliberate activities to enhance both hedonic - centered on pleasure attainment and pain avoidance - and eudaimonic well-being - focused on meaning and self-realization. Well-being is defined in terms of the degree to which a person is fully functioning (Ryan & Deci, 2001).

PPIs concentrate on positive orientation and application, primarily targeting non-clinical populations (J. Pawelski, personal communication, September 10, 2023). PPIs can be divided into two primary categories: those positive in point of application and those positive in method. The former implies activities intended to increase well-being away from zero, designed for individuals who may not be experiencing negative states but are seeking to enhance their overall sense of well-being, typically within a non-clinical population. The latter, positive in method, refers to activities that increase well-being by cultivating good elements such as positive emotions, strengths, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. To be classified as a PPI, an intervention needs to fulfill at least one of these two categories.

This orientation of PPIs stands in complement to the traditionally negative focus of mainstream psychology. Instead of concentrating solely on alleviating psychological conditions, PPIs aim to build good qualities and foster a fulfilling life. The target population for these interventions is primarily non-clinical, signifying a shift from the traditional psychological focus on pathology to a broader spectrum of the human experience.

The process of PPIs revolves around building positive qualities and experiences, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of what constitutes a good life. The ultimate goal of these interventions is not just to eliminate negative states but to empirically understand and cultivate the conditions for a life characterized by flourishing and well-being. This perspective underscores a simple but profound preference within positive psychology: the positive is not merely the absence of the negative, but a distinct and equally important aspect of human experience (Diener, 1984).

Theoretical Foundations of Positive Interventions

PP has been criticized for its shallowness, not delving deep enough into the root causes, negative feelings, and lack of theoretical foundation (van Zyl et al., 2023). Mostly related to hedonic interventions or focus, repressing and running away from difficult emotions, and a separatist focus from other schools of psychology (Held, 2004). As highlighted by van Zyl and colleagues (2023) PP has been failing to counter-argument all its criticism. The main focus of PP is and should be on eudaimonic happiness, however not underscoring the values of all emotions like joy or any negative ones (Kashdan & Biswas-Diener, 2014). Furthermore, PP recognizes the significance of various psychological schools, integrating many into its framework, and emphasizes the value of promoting positive emotions for everyone, aiming to make psychology accessible to the broader public (Seligman, 2002). This is why this paper focuses on how to increase eudaimonic well-being. One of the main root problems of society is that we go for immediate pleasure (hedonism) while we want real fulfilled happiness (eudaimonia) and in doing so it decreases our happiness levels (Ford & Mauss, 2014). This misleading focus might help to explain that despite living in the best moment in history, in all quantitative accounts, happiness levels have stagnated and depression and anxiety are rising (Pinker, 2018; Twenge, 2023). Pleasure may feel good at the moment, but you pay the price later. Most of the time to build eudaimonic happiness discipline and strength are required in the present so you can have a bigger reward in the future (Melchert, 2002). This big reward tends to be inner peace for perceiving that one is living life on its own terms (Plato, 380 B.C.E.). For me, a primary objective of PP is to assist individuals in understanding the limitations of pursuing mere pleasure and to guide them toward cultivating an eudaimonic life—characterized by holistic success. This involves engaging in activities that not only provide immediate happiness but mainly ensure long-term happiness and pride.

PPIs aimed to increase our eudaimonic well-being should contain in their foundational perception and philosophical account 3 pillars that create a virtuous cycle:?

Elevate Our Perception of Ourselves and the External World

Emotional Intelligence (EI). Holistic success extends beyond intelligence (IQ). Emotional Intelligence (EI) is key to understanding human behavior and well-being (Caruso et al., 2015). Daniel Goleman's 1995 book "Emotional Intelligence" popularized EI, which includes four branches—Perceiving Emotions, Facilitating Thought Through Emotions, Understanding Emotions, and Managing Emotions. EI challenges the view of emotions as obstacles, instead positioning them as tools for decision-making, relationship-building, and well-being (Caruso et al., 2015). Cultivating EI enhances self-awareness, autonomy, and well-being, emphasizing its importance in personal development.

Self-Determination Theory (SDT). Emotional Intelligence provides a foundation for self-understanding and perceiving the world, while SDT focuses on three key motivational components for well-being: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. SDT emphasizes that actions driven by personal choice (autonomy), feelings of effectiveness (competence), and meaningful social connections (relatedness) are essential for lasting happiness (K. W. Brown & Ryan, 2015). The theory views motivation as a continuum, encouraging a shift towards more internalized, autonomous motivations. It also highlights the significance of social support in fostering these three components, ultimately linking them to increased well-being.

Self-Efficacy (SE). Expanding on SDT's concept of competence, SE, introduced by Bandura (1997), focuses on an individual's confidence to bring about change through their actions (Maddux & Kleiman, 2021). Beyond just having skills, it's about the confidence to deploy them effectively. This belief dictates the behaviors people engage in and their perseverance when faced with obstacles. Additionally, SE impacts psychological well-being, physical health, and behavior change strategies in both professional and personal spheres.?

Internal Locus of Control. The concept of internal locus of control, introduced by Julian B. Rotter in 1954, refers to the belief that individuals have control over the events and outcomes in their lives. People with a strong internal locus of control attribute their successes and failures to their own actions and efforts, rather than external factors (Rotter, 1954). This psychological concept is crucial in understanding individual differences in coping with life's challenges and in personal motivation.

Explanatory Styles. Building on Rotter's internal locus of control, explanatory styles refer to how individuals explain the events in their lives. This concept, central to Seligman's (1991) theory of learned optimism, classifies explanations along dimensions of permanence, pervasiveness, and personalization. People with an optimistic explanatory style perceive negative events as temporary, specific, and external while viewing positive events as permanent, pervasive, and personal (Seligman, 1991). This style is linked to resilience and mental health, influencing how individuals cope with stress and challenges.

Agency. The newest theory of Martin Seligman (2023), agency has three main components: Self-Efficacy, the mindset that I can accomplish a specific goal now, Optimism, the mindset that I can accomplish this goal far into the future, and Imagination, the mindset that I can accomplish many goals. Efficacy causes trying hard; optimism causes persistence, and imagination causes innovation. In his theory, Seligman (2023) argues that Agency is what drives innovation and progress.?

Reclaiming the Body

There is an understanding in academia of a separation between mind and body (Shusterman, 2006). This dichotomy of mind and body, besides being debunked by scientific evidence supporting the mind-body connection, is toxic and harms well-being (Ratey, 2008).

Somaesthetics. Richard Shusterman (2006), the father of somaesthetics, describes it as an interdisciplinary field that reclaims the integration of humanities, social sciences, and the body. This recalls the Renaissance era when intellectuals had a broad interest across fields, and the arts and sciences were more interconnected than they are today. Shusterman (2006) argues more broadly for the importance of having a holistic interest in life across various fields and subjects and recognizing the interrelated nature of all things. The benefits of this holistic approach are unarguable, with the body serving as a tool to create more knowledge. Shusterman (2006) redefines body-mind as one term since they are intrinsically linked. Our cognitive and emotional processes are inherently embodied (Van der Kolk, 2014).?

Physical Activity (PA). The widely recognized health benefits of PA extend to enhancing the psyche, aiding in the prevention of mental illness, fostering positive emotions, alleviating stress, and increasing resilience (Faulkner et al., 2015). Seligman (2002) argues that building strength should be at the forefront of treating mental illness, and Faulkner and colleagues (2015) advocate that this approach should include physical strength. PA is any movement of the body that results in an expenditure of energy above the resting level. In so, it is different from exercise, which refers to a subset of PA that is structured and has an aim. All ages benefit from PA; children (5-17 years) need them even more (60 minutes daily), while adults need at least 150 minutes a week. PA affects the community level as well; where physical activity is the norm, the community is not only healthier but has greater social capital (Faulkner et al., 2015).?

Balanced Discipline and Joy

The last of the three pillars is the Aristotelian golden mean. Aristotle argued that the key to ethical living lies in balance and moderation, which he called the mean (Melchert, 2002). This concept isn't about finding a geometrical middle point but rather determining a balance that is unique to each individual. Aristotle emphasized that eudaimonia is the ultimate goal of human life, representing the highest good.

Discipline. Positive interventions are created to increase one's happiness level (Pawelski, 2020). It involves intervening in a regular behavior, so it is not easy to implement (J. Pawelski, personal communication, September 10, 2023). It should not be overly complicated, having instructions as simple and clear as possible. Despite understanding intellectually what needs to be done and the reasons behind it, this knowledge doesn't ensure that one will act accordingly (Wood & Neal, 2016). Altering habits is challenging and demands discipline (James, 1892). It is discipline that truly liberates us, enabling us to become the individuals we aspire to be, in accordance with our predetermined goals and aspirations. Otherwise, we find ourselves governed by our instincts, ingrained habits, learned behaviors, and the broader influences of our society. However, one should not become obsessed with it since that can decrease well-being, and lead to various psychological problems (Maté, 2008). It is about balance, or as in Buddhism, finding the middle way, not too tight nor too loose (Trungpa, 1984).

Joy. Another important way to increase happiness is to have fun and savor the moment. The species with the biggest brain size play the most (S. Brown, 2009). The period from ages 3 to 7 is when maximum play occurs and is also the period of the most rapid growth of the cerebellum. The cerebellum is responsible not only for coordination but also for cognitive performance (Budde et al., 2008). Play is correlated with a bigger and stronger brain, so humans should never stop playing (Ratey, 2008). Additionally, when we have fun, it is easier to stick with a habit (Fredrickson, 2009). The elderly must keep exercising with community, friendships, and fun (Segar, 2015). Having fun while engaging in an activity also improves performance (Patel & Desai, 2013).

These three pillars, each with its sub-pillars, form a robust foundation and offer philosophical cornerstones for effective positive interventions. They engage in a reciprocal relationship, where one strengthens the other, creating a virtuous cycle that integrates science and philosophy holistically to enhance the application of PPIs.

Critics and Opposition of PP and PPIs?

As previously discussed PP has been criticized for its shallowness and over-focus on hedonism. In my perception, this is a misconception and I hope the previous pages have helped to elucidate that. However, some of the PPIs are indeed quite shallow, with leading figures in PP like Shigey Oishi arguing that we should transition from Subjective Well-Being (SWB) coined by his mentor Ed Diener (1984) to psychological richness (Oishi & Westgate, 2022). PP has focused a lot since its foundation in 1998 on proving the science of happiness and well-being. Testing interventions that would work and trying to obtain test-retest reliability. As a consequence, there have been too few PPIs developed over those 25 years, and their applications have been too generalized (Pawelski, 2020). Going for one-size-fits-all (onesies), instead of being more personalized.

A New Era of Positive Interventions?

Most PPIs have been used and researched without taking into consideration person-activity fit including personality traits and cultural context (Pedrotti & Edwards, 2017; Schueller, 2014). Aiming for the best prescription for increasing well-being can be equated to the tailored advice of a skilled nutritionist, who designs dietary plans based on individual health needs and preferences. Similarly, a proficient practitioner in PP should personalize interventions to align with the unique characteristics and requirements of individuals or organizations. Incorporating personal details such as the desired outcome (what), the target change (why), time and place (when and where), strengths (who), and the activity (how), not only increases the probability of elevating one's well-being but also adherence. It is this individualized approach, grounded in scientific knowledge and thoughtful adaptation, that forms the crux of effective PP practice.?

To construct a framework supporting practitioners in crafting client-specific Positive Psychology Interventions (PPIs), I have incorporated James Pawelski's Elements Model (2020) along with Sonja Lyubomirsky's (2007) Person-Activity Fit Diagnostic. This approach facilitates the identification and creation of optimal interventions to enhance well-being, ensuring both viability and efficacy for the individual. The framework's adaptability allows for collaborative adjustments between therapist and client, tailoring the intervention to meet specific needs and circumstances.

Based on this framework the active ingredients that a practitioner should take into consideration when creating a PPI for its client should be the following: Desired Outcome (What)

?What the person wants to change. Examples might include but are not limited to improving relationships, having greater meaning, and more success in reaching goals.

Target Change (Why)

?Why does the client want this change to happen? What is happening or has happened for that situation to be as is? In this context, one could delve deeply or only somewhat. Nevertheless, exploring the reasons behind someone's desire to change, and specifically why they choose to focus on that particular aspect, is crucial for fostering awareness. If the motivation for change stems from guilt, it may be beneficial to reduce its influence. Prioritizing autonomy and undertaking changes primarily because we genuinely desire them, rather than due to external pressures, is important.

Time and Place (When and Where)?

When and where is the client going to do it? How much time s/he has and is willing to devote to this process? Does s/he have the discipline to do it every day? Might be easier to implement a shorter intervention or a daily one. Does s/he have the means to do it? Is there anything in the situation that the practitioner needs to account for before doing the alchemy of creating this intervention??

Strengths (Who)?

This is the personalization part. Seeing this person as s/he is. Everyone has strengths. If there is something that PP has proven is that when people work on their strengths they are happier. What are the things that come more naturally for this client? Knowing their strengths here would be helpful. What are the things that s/he values, what are the things that s/he enjoys doing??

Activity (How)

After taking those 4 previous steps into account the practitioner can choose, adapt, or create the PPI that will best fit his/her client.?

Application & Suitability

This is a general framework, with the downside of not being so prescriptive. It is suited best for practitioners who already are educated in positive interventions, knowing the most famous interventions, as well as with a good experience as therapists, knowing to combine different techniques from different schools of psychology. It is also best suited for clients who already have good self-knowledge and want to go deeper. Although it could be used with less advanced clients, in that case, it would be less of a co-creation and more of a creation of the therapist based on assessing those insights.?

Feedback?

This approach is rooted in feedback, in the humanistic understanding of client-centeredness (Rogers, 1951). The PPI(s) should be evaluated constantly and the therapist should guide the process, and keep adapting it accordingly.?

Goal?

The objective of this framework aligns with the goal of therapy in general which is to assist individuals in achieving self-actualization and enhancing their sense of agency, which encompasses the capacity to serve as their own therapists (Maslow, 1954; Rogers, 1961).

Relatedness?

Others can be valuable allies in our journey to a more fulfilling life. They offer insights into our strengths and weaknesses and can provide support when one clearly communicates their goals and how they can assist them. The therapist should encourage and train the clients to interact more and better. This will not only help to increase the success of the intervention but will increase autonomy (K. W. Brown & Ryan, 2015). Moreover, relations are actually the biggest contributor to happiness and longevity so any activity that improves those is already a PPI by itself (Waldinger & Schulz, 2023).??

Instruments and Scales?

One of the important parts of therapy, even more for the non-clinical population, is self-knowledge (Goleman, 1995; Rogers, 1961). Accelerating self-knowledge in therapy can be effectively facilitated through the use of personality and psychological well-being tests (Poston & Hanson, 2010). Personality assessments aid in enhancing self-understanding by elucidating individual preferences, behaviors, and characteristics. Conversely, psychological well-being tests provide a metric for evaluating one's current state on a standardized scale. However, caution is advised when interpreting these tests. It is important for practitioners to communicate to clients that these assessments do not define them; rather, they are tools for insight. Critical engagement with the results is essential, acknowledging their utility while understanding their limitations. Among the scientifically validated tests used in PP are the VIA Character Strengths and the CliftonStrengths, along with the Big Five personality test, which is less self-explanatory and might require help for the client to understand (Gallup, 2007; John, Naumann, & Soto, 2008; Peterson & Seligman, 2004). Even less validated sources like the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator can offer value if approached with critical thinking (Myers, 1962; Randall et al., 2017). Regarding psychological well-being, instruments like The Cantril Ladder and the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) are commonly utilized (Cantril, 1965; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988). Engaging in these assessments periodically can be beneficial, taking care to avoid the risk of clients becoming overly attached to the numbers, which can superficialize the therapeutic process.

Results ?

The client benefits more since it is tailor-made. It will increase well-being, not only helping people to become happier hedonically but making sure we help them to improve eudaimonically, with psychological richness (Oishi & Westgate, 2022). Although it is not prescriptive it gives a framework for practitioners to work on. It also increases the agency of the clients since they are doing it together, enhancing his/her capability to think rationally and solve problems by himself/herself.?

Downside?

Among the challenges is that the proposed framework demands more time and effort to assess and implement the appropriate PPI. Additionally, it is less conductive to scientific testing, as each intervention differs significantly. On the other hand, the PPIs derived from this framework tend to be more precise, given the holistic and tailor-made nature of it.?

Conclusion?

This paper has elucidated a new framework for practitioners to implement more effective positive interventions with their clients. Starting with introducing PP and its history, then defining and giving the best theoretical foundations for PPIs. Finally, I propose a new framework with 5 steps to implement precise tailor-made PPIs. It has also addressed the critics of PP as well as the limitations and better use of the proposed framework.