Education and Race: Georgia
Georgia
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Georgia, a southeastern former slave state, has a population of 10,912,876, of whom, 5,415,657 are White, non-Hispanic, 3,349,240 Black, non-Hispanic, and 1,132,604 Hispanic. The effects of slavery and Jim Crow can be seen in that the median household income of Black residents of the state is $57,293; of White, non-Hispanic, residents it is $82,642. White, non-Hispanic, residents have a poverty rate of 9%; Black residents have a poverty rate twice as high: 18%.[i]
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Georgia was the last of the North American colonies founded by the English, in this case as a bulwark against Spanish intrusions from Florida and as something of a philanthropic experiment, a place where English families who were not wealthy could live and work their own lands.? “From 1735 to 1750, the trustees of Georgia, unique among Britain's American colonies, prohibited African slavery as a matter of public policy.
However, . . . improving economic conditions in Europe meant that fewer whites were willing to immigrate as indentured servants. In addition, many of the whites suffered high mortality rates from the climate, tropical diseases and other hardships of the Lowcountry.[ii]
Defeat of the Spanish was followed ?in 1749 by the legalization of slavery. “From 1750 to 1775, planters so rapidly imported slaves that the enslaved population grew from less than 500 to approximately 18,000?— a majority of people in the colony.” The Georgia slave owners “forced Thomas Jefferson to tone down the critique of slavery in his initial draft of the Declaration of Independence in 1776.
Likewise . . . in 1787, Georgia and South Carolina delegates joined to insert clauses protecting slavery into the new U.S. Constitution.[iii]
In the early nineteenth century plantations using the labor of? enslaved Georgia residents began to grow cotton in addition to those growing rice along the coast; accordingly, the enslaved population of Georgia continued to increase during the early decades of the nineteenth century.
In 1790, just before the explosion in cotton production, some 29,264 enslaved people resided in the state . . . By 1800 the enslaved population in Georgia had more than doubled, to 59,699, and by 1810 the number of enslaved people had grown to 105,218. [iv]
Nonetheless, as in South Carolina, in Georgia “The rice plantations were literally killing fields.
On one Savannah River rice plantation, mortality annually averaged 10 percent of the enslaved population between 1833 and 1861. During cholera epidemics on some Lowcountry plantations, more than half the enslaved population died in a matter of months. Infant mortality in the Lowcountry slave quarters also greatly exceeded the rates experienced by white Americans during this era. [v]
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Thomas Piketty found that “All told, southern slave owners in the New World controlled more wealth than the landlords of old Europe.?
Their farmland was not worth very much, but since they had the bright idea of owning not just the land but also the labor force needed to work that land, their total capital was even greater.[vi]
The fewer than 5 percent of the state’s adult white male population who were slave holders “controlled not only the best land and the vast majority of personal property in the state but also the state political system. In 1850 and 1860 more than two-thirds of all state legislators were slaveholders. More striking, almost a third of the state legislators were planters.”[vii]? This was the state government that led Georgia into the Civil War, which, as far as its effect on the state’s residents, was one of the first modern total wars.? U.S. general William Tecumseh Sherman brought his army south into the state from Tennessee and once having reached, and destroyed Atlanta, cut his own army’s supply lines and led it to the seacoast at Savannah and then north, dismantling railroads and factories, burning crops and, on the other hand, freeing enslaved people.
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The Reconstruction period in Georgia was brief, ending in 1871. Its new state constitution enfranchised Black male residents “called for the establishment of a free public school system, provided for debt relief [and] gave wives control of their property.”[viii] After Reconstruction the White former slave owners consolidated their hold on the state’s economy by driving both Black and White from their land. “While the majority of Southern whites had owned land during the antebellum period, the majority had become landless sharecroppers by the early 1900s. Though landownership by Georgia’s Black farmers had grown to 13 percent by 1900, most remained sharecroppers.”[ix] The White sharecroppers had the consolation that the color of their skin placed them higher than their Black peers in the ideological hierarchy of the state, a difference which they were told was crucially important, despite their poverty. (One observer wondered at their poverty, “I used to go to Klan parades, and I remember one thing particularly: I remember looking at their shoes.? I wondered why they all had on such worn-out, old, miserable shoes.? I had always though? of the Klan as the aristocrats riding off on white horses to save the pure white Southern woman. I was surprised that the Klansmen I saw looked so poor.”[x] ) ?In addition to sharing the poverty of most White residents of Georgia, “In both the cities and the countryside, Black Georgians were second-class citizens. The state’s Jim Crow laws, which increased in number and severity after 1900, segregated public places and made it practically impossible for African Americans to vote.” Between the resignation of the last Black Reconstruction-era member of the state General Assembly and 1963 there was one other Black member of the state legislature, and after that, no other until 2005.[xi]?
A “rigid system of segregation . . . ?pervaded every aspect of southern urban life.
Blacks and whites attended separate schools, drank from separate water fountains, worshipped at separate churches, rode in separate railroad cars, and visited separate parks and recreational facilities. When separate facilities were unavailable or prohibitively expensive, as with movie theaters or public buses, Blacks were confined to separate sections, usually at the rear . . . at hotels and restaurants, or in professional societies, Blacks were often refused admission altogether . . . While they may have always been separate, public facilities, expenditures, and spaces were rarely, if ever, equal.[xii]
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As if to make the subordinate status of Black residents of Georgia unmistakable, between 1882 and 1930 there were more than 450 lynchings in Georgia.[xiii] “Despite the passage of federal civil rights legislation, public facilities in Georgia and throughout the region remained segregated in many areas well into the 1970s . . .
Atlanta’s indices of residential segregation actually increased between 1940 and 1980, as middle-class whites abandoned urban residential areas for new developments on the suburban periphery . .? . today the persistence of segregated residential patterns in contemporary southern communities attests to Jim Crow’s enduring legacy. [xiv]
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Education
Having been denied education, and even bare literacy, for a century, Black residents of Georgia were passionate about education: “when schools for freed people opened in early 1865, they were crowded to overflowing.
Within a year of Black freedom, at least 8,000 formerly enslaved African Americans were attending schools in Georgia; eight years later, Black schools struggled to contain nearly 20,000 students. [xv]
The Reconstruction state constitution of 1868 called for “a thorough system of general education, to be forever free to all children of the State,” to be funded through poll and liquor taxes. However, after Reconstruction, when the system was put in place in 1872 “all schools were segregated by race, and many could afford to operate for only three or four months at a time . . .
From 1870 until well into the twentieth century, white Georgians sought to limit public funding for Black education. Local districts refused to support public secondary education for African American students. Teachers in Black schools received lower salaries than those in white schools, regardless of the teachers’ race, and construction and maintenance of Black schools were neglected. [xvi]?
By 1930 education spending per White student was about $43, for Black students, $10.[xvii] “It was not until 1949 . . . that a uniform nine-month school term was required.” And yet, “Schools remained segregated, as confirmed by the state constitution of 1945, which led to significant inequities in textbooks, teacher salaries, and facilities.[xviii]
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After the 1954 Supreme Court?Brown?v.?Board of Education?decision “the Georgia legislature [which still had no Black members] . . . strongly opposed this federal mandate, declaring it null and void in the state.
It passed a series of laws prohibiting or inhibiting enactment of the Court’s ruling, including the termination of state and local funding for any school that did desegregate, and authorizing the?governor?to close such schools.[xix]
“Massive resistance” lasted until the early 1960s when high schools in Atlanta and Savannah began to allow Black students to enroll. “Yet ten years after the?Brown?decision, less than 2 percent of African American students in Georgia attended classes with whites. “Only in the early 1970s were segregated public schools fully dismantled across the state, though many communities responded by establishing all-white private “segregation academies” that, in effect, kept Blacks and whites in separate classrooms.”[xx]
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Georgia Public Education Today
The Georgia 2022 CCRPI[1] Content mastery scores were: Black, 26% Proficient; White, twice as high, 53%.[xxi] The 2022 NAEP Reading Assessment for students in grade 8 found that just over half, 56%, of Black students in Georgia and 80% of White students had achieved reading levels at or above Basic. Sixty percent of grade 8 students from lower income families were scored at or above Basic in reading, as were 79% of students whose family incomes were higher than the cut-off for the National School Lunch Program.? The percentages were nearly identical with their national equivalents. Fifty-six percent of students in eighth grade whose parental education level was just a high school graduate achieved the Basic level or above in reading, as did 76% of those whose parents were college graduates.
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Combining these variables shows that 71% of lower income White students and just over half, 51%, of Black lower income students were found to be able to read at the Basic level or above, while 86% of higher income White students and 69% of Black higher income students were able to read at the Basic level or above in eighth grade. A higher percentage of lower income White students than higher income Black students were taught to read well in Georgia’s middle schools. Sixty-six percent of White students whose parental education attainment was only a high school diploma were found to read at the Basic level or above in grade 8 as were fewer than half, just 43%, of Black students.? Sixty-two percent of Black students whose parental education attainment was at least a Bachelor’s degree were found to read at the Basic level or above in grade 8 as were 86% of White students whose parental education attainment was at least a Bachelor’s degree. A larger percentage of White students with a parental education attainment of only a high school diploma than Black children of college educated parents are taught to read well in grade 8 in Georgia.
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Georgia’s high school graduation rates for 2022 were 82% for Black students and 87% White students.[xxii]? Four years earlier, when those students were in the grade 8, reading achievement percentages to Basic were 59% for Black students and 72% for White students.? Forty-one percent of Black students and 28% of White students were unable to read and fully understand their middle school homework.? As those percentages are unlikely to have improved by grade twelve, then, for Georgia’s Black students, we might assume that the 18% who did not receive diplomas were in that group, leaving 23% who did receive diplomas in spite of their reading achievement level below Basic, as we might assume that the 13% of White students who did not receive diplomas were in that group, leaving 15% who did receive diplomas in spite of their reading achievement level below Basic. The remaining 59% of Black students and 72% of White graduating students might be considered ready for further education.
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The percentage of White, non-Hispanic, adults who have attained a Bachelor’s degree or higher is 38%; that of Black adults is 14%.[2][xxiii] That is, a quarter of the Black student graduates who read at least at the Basic level in middle school and half of the White students, other things being equal, did in fact go on to earning a Bachelor’s degree or higher qualification. The effect of these education achievement and attainment differences plays out as household income and wealth differences, further disadvantaging the next generation of Black Georgia residents.
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Atlanta
Atlanta, the capital city of Georgia, is a “majority minority” city.? It has a population of 499,121, 186,585 of whom are White, non-Hispanic, 232,418 are non-Hispanic Black and 28,241 are Hispanic. The median household income of White, non-Hispanic, residents is $125,253, that of Black residents is less than half that, $49,526. The poverty rate for Black residents of Atlanta is 27%, that of White residents only 6%.
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The Atlanta area was the territory of indigenous groups, principally Creek and Cherokee tribes, until they were forced to move west to Oklahoma.[xxiv] Atlanta itself was founded in 1837 as the terminus of the Western and Atlantic Railroad, a state-sponsored railroad connecting the port of Savannah to states to the north and west.? Other railroads soon added connections to the city, making it an important transportation hub. “Antebellum Atlanta was a city led by merchants and railroad men, not planters, and as sectional differences mounted, businessmen and voters in the city tended to oppose secession, often on economic grounds.
In the presidential election of 1860, the majority of voters cast their ballots for Union candidates Stephen A. Douglas and John Bell. But when Georgia seceded in January 1861, Atlanta joined with the Confederacy and rapidly became a strategically important city for the Southern cause.[xxv]
As such it was the initial goal of General Sherman’s invasion of the Confederacy, in the course of which the city was burned. ?
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Atlanta was rebuilt relatively soon after the war and Reconstruction, the pre-war railroads and industries revived and then expanded. The railroad network helped make the city a regional outpost for national retail enterprises and industries.? These, in turn, attracted both Whites and African Americans to the city.? “In 1860 African Americans in the city numbered less than 2,000; by 1900 there were more than 35,000 Black Atlantans—approximately 40 percent of the total population of the city.” [xxvi] The racist reaction typical of the country at the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries was strong in Atlanta. “By 1923 the city’s Nathan Bedford Forrest Klan No.1 had a membership of more than 15,000, including many notable businessmen, educators, clergy, and politicians.” [xxvii]? And during “the summer of 1930, approximately 150 Atlanta business leaders, American Legion members, and members of law enforcement founded the American Fascisti [sic] Association and Order of the Black Shirts with the goal to ‘foster the principles of white supremacy’.” For a time they were successful. Atlanta’s buses and?trolleybuses?were not desegregated until 1959;?some restaurants were desegregated in 1961?and movie theaters in 1962–3. Desegregation of the public schools took place slowly from 1961 to 1973 and then went into reverse.
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Education
Atlanta has many colleges and universities, including the leading historical Black universities of Spelman, Morehouse, and Clark Atlanta, some of which were founded as soon as the Civil War ended. On the other hand, as late as 1941-42 the city spent less than 16 percent of its annual school funds on African American students.[xxviii] ?“In response to the?Brown v. Board?decision, Georgia passed legislation requiring the closing of public schools that had been forced to integrate by court orders and their conversion to private schools.
After a federal judge ordered the Atlanta School Board to submit a desegregation plan . . . In 1961, the Georgia legislature revoked its school segregation law. A court-ordered desegregation plan did not take effect, however, for another decade.[xxix]
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Atlanta Public Education Today
The 2022-2023 expenditure per student in Atlanta was a rather high $18,492.? The student to teacher ratio was 13 to 1.[xxx] The Segregation Index for the Atlanta Public Schools in 2022, when the district was 15% White and 73% Black, was 0.5,? indicating that the proportion of White students in the average White student’s school was 50 percentage points higher than in the average Black student’s school.?
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The Georgia state 2022 CCRPI Content Mastery Scores (all grades) recorded 21% of Black students in Atlanta as Proficient or above in English; for White students, four times that: 81% Proficient or above.[xxxi] nbsp;Or to put this another way, the Atlanta public schools had failed to teach to the state standard four-fifths of the Black students for which they were responsible, while doing so for four-fifths of their White students. Similarly, The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) for eighth grade in 2022 found that while 95% of White students had achieved grade level (Basic) levels of reading, Atlanta’s public schools had only taught half, 50%, of their Black peers that well, an enormous 45 percentage point gap.
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Slightly fewer than half, 49%, of students in the Atlanta public schools from lower income families, those eligible for the National School Lunch Program, were found by NAEP to read at the Basic level or above in eighth grade, while 80% of those who were from higher income families had been taught to read that well. Fewer than half, 42%, of students whose parental education attainment was a high school diploma had reading skills at the Basic level or above, while 70% of those from college educated households had reading skills in eighth grade at or above the Basic level. Combining family income and education attainment—that is, socio-economic class—NAEP found that in eighth grade only 40% of students from lower income families with a parental education attainment of a high school diploma scored at or above Basic as did just over half, 52% of those students who had a parental education attainment of a Bachelor’s degree or above.? 84% of students from higher income families with education attainment of a Bachelor’s degree or above were scored at the Basic level or above. Income coordinated with a 32 percentage point gap for students from college-educated families. Perhaps this is an effect of the quality of schools in Atlanta being dependent on neighborhood income levels.
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Combining all three variables—race, family income and parental education attainment—NAEP found that for eighth grade Atlanta public school students nearly two thirds, 63% of Black students who were eligible for the National School Lunch Program and whose parental education attainment was limited to a high school diploma (perhaps 80% of Black students) were not taught to read to the Basic level or above. Ninety-five percent of White students from higher income families with a parental education attainment of a Bachelor’s degree or higher were taught reading to the Basic level or above as were 49% of lower income and 69% of higher income Black students with a parental education attainment level of a Bachelor’s degree or above.
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The graduation rates for Atlanta public schools students are 85% for Black students and 97% for White students.[xxxii] This is 61 percentage points higher than proficiency in English for Black students and 26 percentage points for White students. Educational attainment for adults to a Bachelor’s degree or higher is 82% for White, non-Hispanic, residents and 37% for Black residents, both much closer to K-12 proficiency rates. What then is the actual meaning of a high school diploma for Black students in Atlanta?
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Savannah??????????????????
Savannah, county seat of Chatham County, Georgia, has a population of 147,987. It is also a majority minority city, with 52,187 White, non-Hispanic, residents and 77,527 Black, non-Hispanic, residents. The median household income of Black residents is $43,499, for White, non-Hispanic, $72,160.? The White, non-Hispanic, poverty rate is 14%; Black, nearly twice that: 25%. This is the effect of a hundred years of Black slavery and at least another century of racial discrimination.
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Savannah, Georgia’s oldest city, was founded in 1733 by an English general and philanthropist, James Oglethorpe,? in part to defend South Carolina from Spanish invasion, in part to prevent enslaved Black people in South Carolina from escaping to Spanish?Florida, in part to provide a home for impoverished White English people.? Unusually, initial relations between English colonists and indigenous peoples, in this case Yamacraw Indians, were cordial, due to the establishment of a personal relationship between the colonial leader James Oglethorpe and the Yamacraw leader, Tomochichi. Since Oglethorpe envisioned the settlement as one of small farmers (Jeffersonianism before the letter), slavery was prohibited in Georgia until 1751, but the law was frequently ignored and enslaved people were brought to Savannah almost immediately after its?founding.?“Georgia legalized slavery in 1751, and by 1755, enslavement was codified as a permanent, hereditary, and race-based?status . . .
by 1771, 86% of enslaved people trafficked into Savannah had been kidnapped directly from?Africa. By 1790, enslaved Black people made up more than three-quarters of the population in Chatham County . . . Enslaved people were forbidden to meet together without white supervision or prohibited from engaging in “idleness, gaming, drinking, and other?misbehavior.” . . . They were not allowed out after curfew without a pass or a ticket unless they were with a white person, and anyone caught out after the curfew bell rang across the city at 8 pm in the winter and 9 pm in the summer could be?arrested. [xxxiii]
White residents were sufficiently effective at using legislation and racial terrorism to suppress Black votes that Savannah did not elect its first Black mayor until the 1990s or elect a Black majority Black city council until?1999.[xxxiv]
From the mid-eighteenth century “Savannah was an active slave-trading port, and Savannah would continue to serve as a port in the transatlantic slave trade and trafficking site for kidnapped Africans for three more decades.
Over 23,000 Black people were trafficked into Savannah in at least 300 different voyages?during this time period, making it one of the most active slave-trading ports in the U.S. In 1767, city officials in Savannah were committed enough to the lucrative practice of trafficking enslaved people to invest in and construct a nine-story quarantine facility. This site would detain enslaved?women, men and children.[xxxv]
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Before the Civil War Savannah’s chief export was cotton, grown, harvested and processed by enslaved people, amounting to 80% of the agricultural products going through the city’s harbor.[xxxvi]? Unlike Atlanta, Savannah was not destroyed by the Union forces. “After being spared destruction from Sherman’s forces, Savannah struggled through the chaotic years of Reconstruction.
The city’s population swelled with the influx of thousands of freedpeople following the Civil War. The majority of Savannah’s new Black citizens lived in squalid conditions and were subjected to exorbitant rents and prices for goods by resentful whites. Two separate social cultures evolved for Blacks and whites, and distinct racial lines were drawn, particularly in education. Teachers from the North came to Savannah to provide education for Blacks, but progress was slow; it was not until 1878 that a public school for Blacks was established.[xxxvii]
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Education
The Savannah schools were not definitively desegregated after Brown and therefore were under court oversight until 1994.? In 2007 two-thirds of the students in the public schools were Black, “while the majority of students attending the secular and faith-based private schools (most of which were established between 1954 and 1963) [were] white.?”[xxxviii] The Savannah-Chatham County schools enrolment in 2022 was 57% Black and 20% White.[xxxix] NCES found for the 2020-2021 school year that the student/teacher ratio for the Savannah-Chatham County schools was 14 to 1 for its 36,326 students. Expenditure per student was much less than that of Atlanta: $12,890.
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The Georgia state 2022 CCRPI Content Mastery Scores (all grades) for the Savannah-Chatham County schools recorded that 16% of Black students had achieved Proficient or above in English, while 46% of White students had done so.[xl] Or to put this another way, the Savannah-Chatham public schools had failed to teach to the state standard more than four-fifths of the Black students for which they were responsible, while doing so for nearly half of their White students.
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The 2023 graduation rate for Black students was 88.7%, for White students, 90.5%.[xli] Educational attainment to a Bachelor’s degree or higher is 46% for White, non-Hispanic, adult residents of Savannah, much less than half that, 17%, for Black, non-Hispanic, adult residents. Educational attainment for both groups corresponds to k-12 proficiency in English, but not to high school graduation rates. The differences in adult education attainment for Savannah residents crucially determines differences in household incomes and, then, differences in k-12 education achievement.
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[1] College and Career Ready Performance Index
[2] U.S.: White, non-Hispanic, 39.5%; Black, non-Hispanic, 25.4%.
[ii] Wood, Betty. "Slavery in Colonial Georgia." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Jul 27, 2021. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/slavery-in-colonial-georgia/
[iii] Young, Jeffrey. "Slavery in Antebellum Georgia." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Sep 30, 2020. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/slavery-in-antebellum-georgia/
[iv] Young, Jeffrey. "Slavery in Antebellum Georgia." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Sep 30, 2020. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/slavery-in-antebellum-georgia/
[v] Young, Jeffrey. "Slavery in Antebellum Georgia." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Sep 30, 2020. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/slavery-in-antebellum-georgia/
[vi]? Piketty, Thomas.? Capital in the Twenty-First Century, Arthur Goldhammer, trans. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2014, p. 160.
[vii] Young, Jeffrey. "Slavery in Antebellum Georgia." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Sep 30, 2020. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/slavery-in-antebellum-georgia/
[viii] Bragg, William. "Reconstruction in Georgia." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Sep 30, 2020. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/reconstruction-in-georgia/
[ix] Bragg, William. "Reconstruction in Georgia." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Sep 30, 2020. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/reconstruction-in-georgia/
[x] Durr, Virginia Foster. Outside the Magic Circle. University of Alabama Press, 1985, p. 44.
[xi] Bragg, William. "Reconstruction in Georgia." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Sep 30, 2020. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/reconstruction-in-georgia/
[xii] Hatfield, Edward. "Segregation." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Jul 20, 2020. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/segregation/
[xiii] Tolnay, Stewart and E. Beck. "Lynching." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Aug 12, 2020. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/lynching/
[xiv] Hatfield, Edward. "Segregation." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Jul 20, 2020. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/segregation/
[xv] Bragg, William. "Reconstruction in Georgia." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Sep 30, 2020. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/reconstruction-in-georgia/
[xvi] Butchart, Ronald. "Freedmen’s Education during Reconstruction." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Sep 16, 2020. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/freedmens-education-during-reconstruction/?
[xvii] Hatfield, Edward. "Segregation." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Jul 20, 2020. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/segregation/
[xviii] Mewborn, Denise. "Public Education." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Jul 21, 2020. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/education/public-education-prek-12/
[xix] Mewborn, Denise. "Public Education." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Jul 21, 2020. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/education/public-education-prek-12/
[xx] Mewborn, Denise. "Public Education." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Jul 21, 2020. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/education/public-education-prek-12/
[xxii] Georgia Department of Education, https://www.gadoe.org/External-Affairs-and-Policy/communications/Pages/PressReleaseDetails.aspx?PressView=default&pid=9964-Year Cohort Graduation Rate State District School by Subgroup 10_06_22
[xxiv] Ambrose, Andy. "Atlanta." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Jun 8, 2022. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/counties-cities-neighborhoods/atlanta/
[xxv] Ambrose, Andy. "Atlanta." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Jun 8, 2022. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/counties-cities-neighborhoods/atlanta/
[xxvi] Ambrose, Andy. "Atlanta." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Jun 8, 2022. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/counties-cities-neighborhoods/atlanta/
[xxvii] Ambrose, Andy. "Atlanta." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Jun 8, 2022. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/counties-cities-neighborhoods/atlanta/
[xxviii] Ambrose, Andy. "Atlanta." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Jun 8, 2022. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/counties-cities-neighborhoods/atlanta/
[xxix] Library of Congress. https://www.loc.gov/exhibits/civil-rights-act/multimedia/atlanta-schools.html
[xxxiii] “The Transatlantic Slave Trade,” Chapter 11, Savannah, Georgia. Equal Justice Initiative. https://eji.org/report/transatlantic-slave-trade/savannah/#11-intro-savannah
[xxxiv] “The Transatlantic Slave Trade,” Chapter 11, Savannah, Georgia. Equal Justice Initiative. https://eji.org/report/transatlantic-slave-trade/savannah/#11-intro-savannah
[xxxv] “A History of Racial Injustice,” The Equal Justice Initiative. https://calendar.eji.org/racial-injustice/dec/30#:~:text=Over%2023%2C000%20Black%20people%20were,to%20invest%20in%20and%20construct
[xxxvii] Sullivan, Buddy. "Savannah." New Georgia Encyclopedia, last modified Jul 9, 2022. https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/counties-cities-neighborhoods/savannah/
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