Edition 5: Byzantine Biblicals

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From Luke Daly

The Latest: The Discovery of a Rare Byzantine Biblical Verse

In the heart of the West Bank's arid landscape, a team of archaeologists from Hebrew University has unearthed a treasure trove of historical significance at the site of Hyrcania Fortress in the Judean Desert. Amidst the sun-drenched ruins, they made a groundbreaking discovery – an early medieval inscription and a delicate gold ring that have unveiled tales of a bygone era.

Situated on a hill east of Bethlehem, Hyrcania Fortress has a storied past, initially established by the Hasmonean dynasty in the 2nd or 1st century BC. Over the years, it transformed into a Christian monastery, bearing witness to the ebb and flow of centuries. Known as Khirbet el-Mird in Arabic, or the "Ruins of the Fortress," this site had long eluded methodological excavation until the recent efforts led by Dr. Oren Gutfeld and Michal Haber of Hebrew University.

The team, supported by Carson-Newman University and American Veterans Archaeological Recovery, delved into the complexities of accessing and navigating the site. Their four-week excavation uncovered pivotal evidence, shedding light on the remarkable history of Hyrcania.

One focal point of the exploration was the southeastern corner, where the upper fortification line, dating back to the late 2nd or 1st century BCE, was revealed. In the northeast, the team uncovered an elongated hall, part of a lower-level compound with finely drafted stones. A building stone found in the hall bore red-painted lines of text in Koine Greek, expertly deciphered by Dr. Avner Ecker as a paraphrase of Psalms 86: 1–2 – a poignant prayer invoking the protection of Jesus Christ.

“Hear me, Lord, and answer me, for I am poor and needy. Guard my life, for I am faithful to you”

Dr. Ecker dated the inscription to the first half of the 6th century CE, identifying grammatical errors indicative of a non-native Greek speaker from the region. This discovery, accompanied by an additional inscription, provides unprecedented insights into the site's history, capturing the essence of Christian liturgy in the ancient desert.

As the team marvelled at the textual treasures, an unexpected find added to the allure of Hyrcania – a child-sized gold ring adorned with a turquoise stone. Dr. Nitzan Amitai-Preiss, an expert in Early Arabic epigraphy, deciphered the Arabic Kufic script on the stone, revealing the words "??? ????? ????????" (Mashallah) – "God has willed it." The script's style was traced to the Umayyad caliphate of the 7th and 8th centuries CE.

The turquoise stone, sourced from the newly conquered Sassanid Empire (modern-day Iran), further deepens the mystery surrounding this remarkable artefact. Its journey to Hyrcania and the identity of its wearer remain shrouded in the enigmatic echoes of the desert, inviting historians and archaeologists to unravel the tales hidden within the ancient sands. These discoveries, as Michal Haber emphasises, mark a significant chapter in history, providing a rare glimpse into a meticulously documented past that transcends the uncertainties of earlier findings.

Before Catholic and Protestant, there were Chalcedonian and Monophysite...

The above discovery led me to think more about Byzantine Christianity and how, in the time contemporary to the inscription, Christianity was very divided across the Mediterranean.

From the beginning of Emperor Justinian's reign in the 5th century, he sought to stamp out heresy and create a singular doctrine – Chalcedonian, named after the Council of Chalcedon in 451. The Council of Chalcedon is one of many examples of the councils put together throughout the medieval period to decide and agree upon questions in Christianity. While nowadays Christianity is a highly structured institution with a large degree of unity in its aspects of faith, once upon a time it was very fluid and scattered in its beliefs. Two prominent questions divided theologians and churchmen across the continent. The first was how to calculate the date of Easter – should it always be celebrated on a Sunday? Or, should Christians follow the Jewish lunar month on which the Paschal Lamb was slaughtered? To answer this, a further issue then arose on deciding how to calculate when the Paschal moon appeared; the Celtic Church, Western Church and Eastern Church all observed it differently because of the conflicting calendars used. While this may seem like a small issue, it is one that continued until 1963 when the second Vatican Council finally stated that there was no objection to observing Easter on a fixed Sunday. A far more pressing and dividing issue, however, was understanding the nature (or natures) of Christ upon incarnation. Without getting too theological, if we agree that Christ is the son of God, what does it mean for him to be God and Man? Is he both? Or one? Or the other? This is what many councils throughout history have sought to answer and the Council of Chalcedon was a pivotal event in this controversy as it resulted in a schism which lasts to this day.?

At the Council of Chalcedon were the Monophysites who believed in one nature, that Christ was purely divine and not human despite taking on an earthly form. Today, the Coptic and Armenian Orthodox churches and the Jacobite Syrian Church (also known as the Oriental Orthodox Church) follow this doctrine. Opposing this were the Chalcedonians who disagreed and stated that Christ had two natures – a fully human form and a fully divine form. The Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and most Protestant Churches currently uphold this doctrine. The Council of Chalcedon, which was attended by 520 bishops, therefore approved several earlier religious creeds, established definitions of faith and doctrine, and rejected Monophysite beliefs.

This, however, only led to more division through the Three Chapters Controversy. This theological debate centred around the writings of three theologians who had been condemned for their beliefs by the Council of Constantinople in 543. These three theologians were Theodore of Mopsuestia, Theodoret of Cyrrhus, and Ibas of Edessa. The controversy arose because some church leaders believed that the writings of these men contained teachings that were at odds with the teachings of the church. In particular, they were accused of supporting the heresy of Nestorianism, which held that the human and divine natures of Jesus Christ were separate and distinct. In response to these accusations, the Council of Constantinople issued a condemnation of the three theologians and their writings, known as the ‘Three Chapters’. This decision was met with resistance from some church leaders, who argued that the theologians were being unfairly condemned and that their writings should be considered valid expressions of Christian doctrine. The controversy continued for several years, with different factions within the church supporting one side or the other. Eventually, the controversy was resolved at the Second Council of Constantinople in 553, which affirmed the condemnation of the Three Chapters and reaffirmed the teachings of the church on the nature of Christ. The Three Chapters Controversy had a significant impact on the development of Christian theology and the relationships between different branches of the church. It also highlighted the ongoing struggles within the church over issues of doctrine and authority. Ultimately, rather than reconciling Chalcedonian and anti-Chalcedonian Christians while maintaining support from the western clergy, his alienation of the west by undertaking the role of a priest rather than emperor left a bitter taste between Constantinople and the papacy. In many ways this set the precedence for Eastern Orthodoxy and Western Christianity as the two would never see eye to eye.

This was an excerpt from my upcoming book 'Saints and Sinners: A History of the Middle Ages Through Saints and Their Stories'. If you would like to read more excerpts then click here.

Thank you for being a part of our community. We look forward to unravelling more historical wonders with you in the coming months. Until next time!

Warmest regards,

Luke