Digital Census in Pakistan-2023

Introduction?

A digital census is a modern approach to census taking that involves the use of digital technologies such as mobile devices, online surveys, and geospatial data to collect and analyze population data. The UN's methodology of Census suggests two ways of Census, “De-jure” where one maintains the usual place of residence and you take stock of the population in a given stipulated time. Whereas, “De-Fecto'' will find a person and see where he/she is living. As you do not need the usual place of residence for the “De Fecto”, you can be a settler or a visitor (Population Census | Pakistan Bureau of Statistics). Until now, Pakistan has used the De Jure methodology as it is affordable and compliant to the political resources of the Pakistan provinces. Small & developed countries can easily adopt the De facto system of census but developing countries like Pakistan are not suited for it. The UN recommends universality to cover each citizen irrespective of the status/CNIC holder or not. The enumerators to be used should operate simultaneously in the shortest possible time. The onboarding of all stakeholders who could analyze the system, people involved from provincial machinery, academia to the general public, and its roles. The primary objective of a digital census is to provide accurate, timely, and detailed information on the size, distribution, and characteristics of a population from an extensive view, either from a town, district, division, or province. This information can be used for various purposes, including resource allocation, policy development, and planning.?

In Pakistan, a digital census can be particularly useful due to the country’s larger and geographically dispersed population. Compared to traditional census methods,?such as door-to-door surveys, a digital census containing almost 40 self-explanatory questions will collect data that can be used to identify and address gaps in service delivery, and infrastructure development, and enhance public participation in the decision-making process. (‘Census 2023’).

Benefit-Cost Analysis

?Benefit-cost analysis is a systematic approach used to assess the costs and benefits of a particular project or policy. In the context of a digital census, benefit-cost analysis can be conducted to determine whether the benefits of implementing a digital census outweigh the costs associated with it. The analysis can include a comparison of the costs of conducting a traditional door-to-door census with the costs of implementing a digital census, as well as an assessment of the benefits that a digital census can bring in terms of accuracy, efficiency, and timeliness of data collection.

Cost-effectiveness analysis

Cost-effectiveness analysis is another approach used to assess the costs and benefits of a particular project or policy. In the context of a digital census, cost-effectiveness analysis can be used to determine the most efficient way of achieving the objectives of the census. The analysis can include a comparison of the costs of different digital technologies used for data collection, as well as an assessment of the effectiveness of different outreach and communication strategies.

Weighted net benefit on a digital census

The weighted net benefit of a digital census refers to the overall benefits and costs associated with implementing a digital census, taking into account the relative importance of each benefit and cost. The weighted net benefit can be calculated by assigning weights to each benefit and cost, based on their importance and impact, and then subtracting the total costs from the total benefits. The result provides an overall assessment of the value of a digital census, taking into account both the benefits and the costs.

Agenda Setting

The upcoming digital census in Pakistan in 2023 is an important undertaking that will require careful planning and execution. One of the biggest challenges that Pakistan faced was to ensure that all segments of the population are counted, including those in hard-to-reach areas and marginalized communities. Previously, until 2017, all censuses have faced a vote of no confidence issues. This is the biggest challenge that Digital Census is comprehensively coping up through the following ways:?

One Window System:?

The technical servers at each NADRA office are digitally connected to the back-end hub of servers through a secure VPN encapsulation tempo which is developed by National Technology Council - NTC in a one-year effort.

Pros and Cons of One Window System:

The One Window System proposed by NADRA has the potential to provide significant benefits to its users, including increased efficiency and convenience. However, as with any new system, there are also potential risks and costs to consider. In order to evaluate the potential benefits and costs of implementing the One Window System, a benefit-cost analysis (BCA) and a cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA) could be conducted.

A BCA would examine the monetary costs and benefits associated with implementing the One Window System. The costs would include the initial investment required to develop and implement the system, as well as ongoing maintenance and operational costs. The benefits would include the potential savings from increased efficiency and reduced wait times, as well as any other benefits to users and the government.

A CEA, on the other hand, would compare the costs of implementing the One Window System to the outcomes achieved. This could include a range of outcomes, such as the number of users served, the speed and accuracy of information processing, and the overall user experience. By comparing the costs of the system to these outcomes, a CEA could help to determine whether the One Window System is the most cost-effective option for NADRA.

Another key concept to consider when evaluating the One Window System is the weighted net benefit (WNB). The WNB takes into account both the costs and benefits of a system and assigns a weight to each based on their relative importance. By summing up the weighted benefits and subtracting the weighted costs, the WNB provides a more comprehensive measure of the overall impact of the One Window System. This approach can help to ensure that all relevant factors are taken into account when making a decision about whether to implement the system.

No Geographical Hindrance:

The term "No Geographical Hindrance" in the context of the digital census 2023 means that the collection of data will not be restricted by the physical location of individuals. Traditionally, census data collection has been done through paper-based forms that are distributed and collected by census officials in person. This method can be challenging in remote or hard-to-reach areas where there may be limited infrastructure or difficult terrain.

By implementing a digital census with a centralized coordination mechanism, individuals are able to participate in the census regardless of their location. This means that data can be collected from rural or remote areas as easily as it can be collected from urban areas. The digital census uses modern technology, such as smartphones or tablets, to collect data in real time. This will allow census officials to coordinate and manage the data collection process from a central location, ensuring that all data is collected and stored securely.

In addition to overcoming geographical hindrances, a digital census has the potential to increase the accuracy and completeness of the data collected. With traditional paper-based forms, there is a risk of errors or incomplete responses due to illegible handwriting or missing information. With a digital census, respondents can be prompted to answer all questions and any inconsistencies can be flagged for review. This can lead to more accurate and complete data, which can in turn lead to better policy decisions and resource allocation.

Critical Evaluation of Geographical Hindrance:

????The implementation of the digital census 2023 requires a thorough analysis of its costs and benefits, which can be done through benefit-cost analysis and cost-effectiveness analysis. To determine the feasibility and potential impact of the digital census 2023, benefit-cost analysis and cost-effectiveness analysis can be conducted. The potential benefits of the digital census, such as increased accuracy and completeness of data, can be compared with the costs of implementing and maintaining the system. This can help determine whether the benefits outweigh the costs and whether the project is worth pursuing.

Moreover, a weighted net benefit analysis can be performed to account for the potential risks and benefits of the digital census 2023. The negative aspects of the digital census, such as privacy and data protection concerns and exclusion of marginalized populations, can be assigned a negative weight, while the positive aspects, such as increased accuracy of data and streamlined data collection, can be assigned a positive weight. The net benefit can then be calculated by subtracting the negative weight from the positive weight, providing a more comprehensive assessment of the potential impact of the digital census.

Overall, conducting a benefit-cost analysis, cost-effectiveness analysis, and weighted net benefit analysis can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the potential impact of the digital census 2023.

A monitoring Layer:

The system categorizes the enumeration and ensures the access of data with local government administrations to provincial stakeholders. That’s how the system is deemed to be transparent and trustworthy.

To fully understand the potential impact of the monitoring layer in the system, it is important to conduct a benefit-cost analysis, cost-effectiveness analysis, and weighted net benefit analysis. A benefit-cost analysis can compare the expected benefits of the monitoring layer, such as increased transparency and collaboration, with its expected costs, such as potential delays in data processing. This can help determine whether the benefits outweigh the costs and whether the system is worth pursuing.

A cost-effectiveness analysis can compare the costs of implementing the monitoring layer with alternative methods of ensuring transparency and accountability in the census process. This can help determine whether the monitoring layer is the most cost-effective option.

Moreover, a weighted net benefit analysis can be performed to consider the potential risks and benefits of the monitoring layer. The potential positive impacts, such as increased transparency and collaboration, can be assigned a positive weight, while the potential negative impacts, such as delays in data processing and privacy concerns, can be assigned a negative weight. The net benefit can then be calculated by subtracting the negative weight from the positive weight, providing a more comprehensive assessment of the potential impact of the monitoring layer.

Technical Glitches:

The use of technology such as tablets, and computerized systems can lead to technical glitches and system failures. This is why the government should have adequate backup plans to help ensure that any encounter with these problems can be quickly and efficiently solved. This can ensure that census data is not lost or compromised.

In the context of the positive side of using technology in the census process, a BCA could show that the benefits of increased efficiency and accuracy outweigh the costs of implementing and maintaining the technology. A CEA could show that using technology is more cost-effective than using traditional methods. WNB could be used to combine these analyses and provide an overall measure of the net benefit of using technology in the census process.

On the negative side, a BCA could show that the potential costs of technical glitches and system failures outweigh the benefits of using technology in the census process. A CEA could show that using traditional methods is more cost-effective than using technology if the costs of technical glitches and system failures are taken into account. WNB could be used to weigh the costs against the benefits and provide an overall measure of the net benefit of using technology in the census process, taking into account the potential risks and drawbacks.

Addressing the Leaky Bucket Issues in Consensus Participation

Moreover, many people are hesitant to share their personal information for the digital census, which can result in incomplete data. In order to maximize the project impact, there must be the least leaks in the project bucket. So, the resources allocated to the project, in our case of the digital census, the government must enhance its awareness campaigns. This will definitely enable the government to achieve what it intended from the digital census 2023. Additionally, there are individuals who may not have national IDs, birth certificates, or other documentation, making it difficult for them to be accurately counted. This can lead to underrepresentation or exclusion of certain populations, skewing the data. To address this problem, the government should launch an extensive awareness campaign as compared to the hollow one they did in order to educate the public about the importance of participating in the census and the safety measures taken to protect their data. The government should also provide alternative methods for individuals without proper documentation to be counted, such as by allowing neighbors or community leaders to vouch for them or conducting door-to-door surveys. In addition, the government can incentivize participation by offering rewards or benefits, such as access to government programs or services.?

???? On the positive side, launching an awareness campaign to educate the public about the importance of participating in the census and the safety measures taken to protect their data can potentially increase participation rates, leading to more complete and accurate data. Providing alternative methods for individuals without proper documentation to be counted, such as by allowing neighbors or community leaders to vouch for them or conducting door-to-door surveys, can also help ensure that these individuals are accurately represented in the data. Incentivizing participation by offering rewards or benefits can further encourage people to participate in the census.

???? On the negative side, relying on alternative methods to count individuals without proper documentation, such as relying on community leaders or conducting door-to-door surveys, may not be as accurate as the standard census method. This could potentially result in undercounting or over-counting certain populations, which can lead to skewed data.

Additionally, the use of incentives to encourage participation may be seen as coercive or may only encourage participation from certain segments of the population.

Potential for logistical issues

With a large number of tablets and people involved, there is a potential for logistical issues such as delays or errors in data transmission or processing.

???? To determine the overall value of using a large number of tablets and people for the digital census, a benefit-cost analysis can be conducted. The benefits of using technology and a large workforce for the census process include more efficient data collection and processing, greater accuracy, and reduced potential for human error. On the other hand, the costs associated with using a large number of tablets and people can include logistical issues, such as delays or errors in data transmission or processing, and increased expenses for managing and coordinating the workforce.

To assess the effectiveness of the digital census process, a cost-effectiveness analysis can be conducted. This would involve evaluating the costs of the census process in relation to the benefits obtained, such as more accurate and reliable data for policy and planning purposes. A weighted net benefit analysis can also be performed to assign values to the costs and benefits of the census process and determine the overall net benefit of using technology and a large workforce for the census.

Digitization

Digitization is a key aspect of the digital census, as it enables data to be collected and processed in a more efficient and accurate manner. However, the process of digitization itself can also have its own challenges and potential drawbacks. One such challenge is the need to manually enter paper-based census forms into a digital system. This can be a time-consuming and resource-intensive process, which may lead to delays in data processing and analysis.

To address this challenge, a benefit-cost analysis can be conducted to evaluate the potential benefits of prioritizing the digitization of paper-based forms against the costs involved in doing so. This analysis can help decision-makers determine whether the benefits of digitization, such as increased efficiency and accuracy, outweigh the costs, such as the time and resources needed for manual data entry.

A cost-effectiveness analysis can also be useful in evaluating different options for digitization, such as using automated scanning technology or outsourcing the data entry process. By comparing the costs and benefits of each option, decision-makers can identify the most cost-effective solution that maximizes the benefits of digitization while minimizing costs.

Finally, a weighted net benefit analysis can be conducted to evaluate the overall impact of digitization on the census process. This analysis takes into account the costs, benefits, and potential risks associated with digitization, and assigns weights to each factor based on their relative importance. The result is a more comprehensive evaluation of the overall net benefit of digitization, which can help guide decision-making and ensure the success of the digital census.

Limited Focus on Gender and Disability Issues:

The information provided does not explicitly mention efforts to ensure that the digital census takes into account the specific needs and perspectives of different genders and persons with disabilities.

???? To further analyze the situation, a benefit-cost analysis can be conducted to determine the economic feasibility of addressing gender and disability issues in the digital census. The cost of implementing measures to ensure inclusion could include the additional resources required to collect and process data, as well as the cost of training staff to effectively address the needs of different populations. However, the benefits of ensuring accurate representation of these populations in the census data could include more effective policy decisions, targeted resource allocation, and improved access to services for these marginalized groups.

In addition, a cost-effectiveness analysis can be conducted to determine the most efficient approach to addressing gender and disability issues in the digital census. This analysis would compare the cost of implementing different strategies to ensure inclusion against their effectiveness in accurately representing these populations in the census data.

A weighted net benefit analysis can also be conducted to determine the overall social impact of addressing gender and disability issues in the digital census. This analysis would take into account the economic, social, and environmental benefits and costs of different strategies, as well as the distribution of those benefits and costs across different population groups.

?Real-Time Progress View for Census Agents in Pakistan

The system is equipped with a real-time progress view. Citizens can visualize the red dots of the census agents carrying tablets and moving nearby on the Map.

Another challenge that Pakistan may face is ensuring the accuracy and reliability of the data collected. To address this challenge, the government can consider investing in training and capacity building for census takers, as well as using advanced technologies such as geospatial data to verify the accuracy of the data. Additionally, the government can consider engaging with civil society organizations and other stakeholders to promote transparency and accountability in the census process.

Finally, it is important for the government to ensure that the census data is used effectively for policy development and planning. This can be achieved by making the data accessible to the public and relevant stakeholders, as well as by investing in data analysis and visualization tools to help decision-makers understand the data and its implications.

Policy formulation

The formulation of Pakistan's Digital Census 2023 policy involves multiple stakeholders: including the government, the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (PBS), and international organizations such as the United Nations Population Fund or UNFPA.?

?The policy formulation involves a series of consultations with experts from various fields, including data analytics, technology, and demographics to ensure the policy’s effectiveness and accuracy. To address these challenges, the policy included a series of measures, including the use of modern technology, hiring and training a large workforce, and launching awareness campaigns. PBS has established census command centers in Lahore and Karachi. Due to political and resource constraints, it has failed to establish in KP.?

The policy aims to develop a comprehensive and robust framework for collecting and analyzing population data using modern technology. The government planned to hire and train a large workforce to conduct the census and raise awareness among the population through various campaigns.

According to the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, the digital census policy aims to address the challenges faced by traditional paper-based censuses, including incomplete and inaccurate data, long processing times, and high costs. The policy also aims to ensure the confidentiality and security of the data collected. Moreover, it gives IT experts and demographers a current state of enumeration and thus helps them with quick decision-making, trend analysis, monitoring, and data insights.

Decision Making?

Pakistan’s decision to conduct a digital census was made after considering the problems faced by past censuses (Gondal, 2021). Pakistan has faced challenges with uncertain census results because of law enforcement agencies for enumeration and verification. PBS has planned to protect the census system and agents by taking help from law enforcement agencies. This digital system does not let agencies intervene in the enumeration itself. The traditional paper-based censuses had several issues, including undercounting, data quality, and timeliness. These challenges led to the decision to conduct a digital census using modern technology.

The last census lacked a post-enumeration survey (PES) due to a lack of resources and feasibility. The digital census system has designed the PES to increase the credibility and quality of the census. The PES is aimed to take 6 months of field operation using CATI - Computer Assisted Telephone Interview (‘Census 2023).

?Centralized decision-making

The centralized decision-making process may limit the ability of local decision-makers to adapt to local circumstances, leading to less accurate data collection. Centralized decision-making may not allow for flexibility in responding to unexpected challenges or changes in circumstances.

Centralized decision-making can have both positive and negative impacts on the effectiveness of data collection in a census. On the positive side, a centralized approach can help to ensure consistency and standardization across different regions, potentially increasing the accuracy and reliability of the data collected. Additionally, a centralized approach can help to minimize duplication of efforts and reduce overall costs.

On the negative side, a centralized approach may limit the ability of local decision-makers to adapt to local circumstances, potentially leading to less accurate data collection. This can result in skewed or incomplete data that may not reflect the true situation on the ground. Furthermore, centralized decision-making may not allow for flexibility in responding to unexpected challenges or changes in circumstances, leading to delays or inaccuracies in the data collection process.

To address these potential issues, a benefit-cost analysis and cost-effectiveness analysis could be conducted to weigh the potential benefits and costs of a centralized decision-making approach versus a more decentralized approach. Additionally, a weighted net benefit analysis could be used to evaluate the potential impacts of different decision-making approaches on the accuracy and reliability of the data collected. Ultimately, the goal should be to find a balance between standardization and flexibility in decision-making to ensure the most accurate and reliable census data possible.

Pakistan’s first digital census will provide valuable information about population growth, urban-rural ratio, gender, age, literacy, languages, religion, disability, migration, ethnicity, and economic activities(Desk, 2022).

Questionnaire design flaws

Policy evaluation is a crucial process in determining the success of any policy implementation. In the case of Pakistan's first-ever digital census, the evaluation will involve several aspects, including benefit-cost analysis and cost-effectiveness analysis. These analyses will help in determining the economic feasibility of the project and the extent to which the project has delivered its intended outcomes.

Apart from these analyses, questionnaire design flaws can also be a significant challenge in obtaining accurate information during the census. The design of the questionnaire may not capture all the necessary information accurately, and this can affect the overall quality of the data collected. The Chief Statistician of the PBS has revealed that the “Questionnaire for the digital census comprises around 40 questions on eight broad themes, including household, basic amenities, demography, education, health, employment, disability, and migration." Therefore, it is crucial to ensure that the questionnaire design is appropriate and comprehensive enough to capture all the relevant information accurately.

Furthermore, to determine the success of the digital census project, a weighted net benefit analysis can also be carried out. This analysis involves assigning weights to the various costs and benefits associated with the project and calculating the net benefit. This approach can help in making informed decisions regarding the allocation of resources and the prioritization of competing projects.

?Inadequate protection of respondent privacy:?

There may not be sufficient measures in place to protect the privacy of respondents, which could affect their willingness to participate in the census. Inadequate protection of respondent privacy can lead to a lack of trust in the census process and low participation rates. This can result in inaccurate data and skewed representations of certain populations. In addition, it may put individuals at risk of privacy violations or discrimination based on the information they provide. Therefore, it is important to ensure that appropriate measures are in place to protect respondent privacy, such as anonymization of data and secure storage of personal information.

Benefit-cost analysis:?can be applied to assess the potential benefits of implementing appropriate measures to protect the privacy of respondents against the associated costs of such measures. For instance, investing in secure storage and anonymization of data may incur additional costs, but it can lead to greater public trust, higher participation rates, and more accurate data collection.

Cost-effectiveness analysis:?can be used to compare the costs of implementing different privacy protection measures and their effectiveness in achieving the desired outcomes. This can help decision-makers choose the most effective and efficient approach to protect respondent privacy.

Weighted net benefit analysis:?can be applied to assess the overall impact of implementing privacy protection measures on the census process. This involves assigning weights to the costs and benefits associated with the implementation of privacy protection measures and comparing them to determine whether the benefits outweigh the costs. The analysis can help decision-makers determine the optimal level of investment in privacy protection measures that maximizes the net benefit of the census process.

?Insufficient involvement of local decision-makers:?

It may be beneficial to involve more local decision-makers in the census process to improve the accuracy of data collection. This could lead to more effective policies and resource allocation based on the needs of specific regions. However, there may be additional costs associated with involving more people in the decision-making process.

Investing in the involvement of local decision-makers may be cost-effective in the long run if it leads to more accurate and representative data collection. However, the costs of additional training, communication, and coordination may need to be taken into account.

The benefits of involving local decision-makers in the census process may outweigh the costs, as it could lead to more accurate data collection and better policy decisions. However, the specific benefits and costs may vary depending on the context and the level of involvement of local decision-makers. A weighted net benefit analysis can help determine the optimal level of involvement for different regions and populations.

?Accessibility Issues:?

Some areas may be hard to reach, making it difficult to collect accurate data from these regions. One potential good thing is that the government can take proactive measures to ensure that even hard-to-reach areas are counted, which can provide a more complete picture of the country's population. For example, the government can use satellite technology or other means of transportation to reach remote areas.

Policy Implementation

To ensure a successful policy implementation of the census, the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (PBS) has developed a comprehensive plan that includes addressing potential challenges. One challenge is infrastructure constraints, which can hinder the collection and processing of accurate data. To overcome this challenge, PBS has incorporated GIS mapping and biometric configuration to improve data accuracy and timeliness. These technologies can provide a more precise geographic location of the respondents and help in eliminating duplicate entries.

Another challenge is data security and privacy concerns, as census data contains sensitive information about individuals and households. To address this, the PBS has put measures in place to protect the privacy of respondents, such as anonymizing the data and ensuring secure storage of personal information.

In addition, extensive training of field staff and enumerators is crucial for the success of the census. To ensure that they are well-equipped to handle the challenges that may arise during data collection, PBS has conducted a 3-tier training program for masters, trainers, and enumerators. These training sessions cover topics like data collection techniques, handling sensitive information, and dealing with complex building structures.

The government is also launching awareness campaigns to encourage maximum participation from the public. These campaigns aim to dispel myths surrounding the census and highlight the importance of accurate data for policymaking and planning. Materials such as audio, video, animation, and demographics have been developed to help communicate the message effectively.

However, despite these efforts, the census may still face challenges such as people's psychology, availability of participants, and unwillingness to participate. The PBS must anticipate these challenges and have contingency plans in place to address them effectively.?

Policy Evaluation

Policy evaluation is a critical aspect of any policy implementation process. It involves assessing the effectiveness and impact of the policies put in place. In the case of the first-ever digital census in Pakistan in 2023, policy evaluation will be essential in determining the success of the project. The evaluation will be done after the data collection is complete, and the analysis of the data is done. It will involve assessing the accuracy and completeness of the data, the efficiency of the data collection process, and the effectiveness of the communication and dissemination strategies.

The fundamental critique of the census rides on the question of do we really need a census in these miserable economic conditions. The critics argue on the basis of other Data Collection authorities like NADRA, and BISP. They also have an extensive number of citizens as well as during COVID-19, a huge amount of data was collected by the government. It would be cost-effective if PBS only used the secondary data and added the remaining questions to get incremental data for Policymaking, planning, and development.

However, the fundamental critique of the census is whether it is necessary in the current economic conditions. Critics argue that other data collection authorities such as NADRA and BISP already have extensive data on citizens, and the government has collected a significant amount of data during the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, it would be more cost-effective for the Pakistan Bureau of Statistics (PBS) to use secondary data and add remaining questions to obtain incremental data for policy-making, planning, and development. If there were due cooperation and Co-production between Government entities, there would be no need for a census. Leg-pulling, self-interest over national interest with no talking terms. NADRA has data that is disputed on the birth/death rates of the nation.

?Dr. Naeem Uz Zafar, the Chief Statistician at PBS, acknowledges that the effectiveness of the digital census depends on the cooperation and co-production between different government entities. However, due to the lack of cooperation and self-interest over national interest with no talking terms, NADRA's data on birth/death rates is disputed. Therefore, a comprehensive census that covers all aspects of the population is necessary for proper policy-making and development.

Overall, the digital census in Pakistan presents an opportunity to improve data collection and analysis in the country. An effective policy evaluation will ensure that the data collected is accurate and complete and that the project's objectives are met.

P.S. This article is written & published by Abdullah Ramay. Feel free to #connect and #interact.

References

Census 2023: All You Want To Know About - PIDE - Pakistan Institute of Development Economics - -. (n.d.). Https://Pide.Org.Pk/. Retrieved 25 February 2023, from https://pide.org.pk/webinar/census-2023-all-you-want-to-know-about/

Desk, N. (2022, August 3). Pakistan’s first digital census: PBS. Global Village Space. https://www.globalvillagespace.com/pakistans-first-digital-census-pbs/

Gondal, M. S. (2021). CONDUCTING THE FIRST EVER “DIGITAL” POPULATION AND HOUSING CENSUS OF PAKISTAN:????????????????A COMPARATIVE STUDY FOR DESIGNING DATA COLLECTION AND PROCESSING OF DATA USING MODERN TECHNOLOGIES. 49.

Population Census | Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. (n.d.). Retrieved 25 February 2023, from https://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/population-census

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