DIFFERENT TYPES OF BATTERIES,EV BATTERY TYPES,EV BATTERY BEST PRACTICES & MAINTENANCE, BATTERY DEGRADATION, LATEST FIVE NEW BATTERY TECHNOLOGIES
vijay tharad
Director Operations at Corporate Professional Academy for Technical Training & Career Development
Battery Definitions
Batteries are specified by three main characteristics: chemistry, voltage and specific energy (capacity). A starter battery also provides cold cranking amps (CCA), which relates to the ability to provide high current at cold temperatures.
Chemistry
The most common battery chemistries are lead, nickel and lithium, and each system needs a designated charger. Charging a battery on a charger designed for a different chemistry may appear to work at first but might fail to terminate the charge correctly. Observe the chemistry when shipping and disposing of batteries as each chemistry has a different regulatory requirement.
Voltage
Batteries are marked with nominal voltage; however, the open circuit voltage (OCV) on a fully charged battery is 5–7 percent higher. Chemistry and the number of cells connected in series provide the OCV. The closed circuit voltage (CCV) is the operating voltage. Always check for the correct nominal voltage before connecting a battery.
Capacity
Capacity represents specific energy in ampere-hours (Ah). Ah is the discharge current a battery can deliver over time. You can install a battery with a higher Ah than specified and get a longer runtime; you can also use a slightly smaller pack and expect a shorter runtime. Chargers have some tolerance as to Ah rating (with same voltage and chemistry); a larger battery will simply take longer to charge than a smaller pack, but the Ah discrepancy should not exceed 25 percent. European starter batteries are marked in Ah; North America uses Reserve Capacity (RC). RC reflects the discharge time in minutes at a 25A discharge.
Cold cranking amps (CCA)
Starter batteries, also known as SLI (starter light ignition) are marked with CCA. The number indicates the current in ampere that the battery can deliver at –18°C (0°F). American and European norms differ slightly.
Specific energy, energy density
Specific energy, or gravimetric energy density, defines battery capacity in weight (Wh/kg); energy density, or volumetric energy density, reflects volume in liters (Wh/l). Products requiring long runtimes at moderate load are optimized for high specific energy; the ability to deliver high current loads can be ignored.
Specific power
Specific power, or gravimetric power density, indicates loading capability. Batteries for power tools are made for high specific power and come with reduced specific energy (capacity). Figure 1 illustrates the relationship between specific energy (water in bottle) and specific power (spout opening).
The water in the bottle represents specific energy (capacity); the spout pouring the water govern specific power (loading).
AA battery can have high specific energy but poor specific power as is the case with the alkaline battery, or low specific energy but high specific power as with the supercapacitor .
C-rates
The C-rate specifies the speed a battery is charged or discharged. At 1C, the battery charges and discharges at a current that is on par with the marked Ah rating. At 0.5C, the current is half and the time is doubled, and at 0.1C the current is one-tenth and the time is 10-fold.
Load
A load defines the current that is drawn from the battery. Internal battery resistance and depleting state-of-charge (SoC) cause the voltage to drop under load, triggering end of discharge. Power relates to current delivery measured in watts (W); energy is the physical work over time measured in watt-hours (Wh).
Watts and Volt-amps (VA)
Watt is real power that is being metered; VA is the apparent power that is affected by a reactive load. On a purely resistive load, watt and VA readings are alike; a reactive load such as an inductive motor or fluorescent light causes a phase shift between voltage and current that lowers the power factor (pf) from the ideal one (1) to 0.7 or lower. The sizing of electrical wiring and the circuit breakers must be based on VA power .
State-of-health (SoH)
The three main state-of-health indicators of a battery are:
Li-ion reveals SoH in capacity. Internals resistance and self-discharge stay low under normal circumstances. SoH is commonly hidden form the user in consumer products; only state-of-charge (SoC) is provided. SoH is sometimes divided into:
Note: Unless otherwise mentioned, RSoH refers to SoH.
State-of-charge (SoC)
SoC reflects the battery charge level; a reading battery user is most familiar with. The SoC fuel gauge can create a false sense of security as a good and faded battery show 100 percent when fully charged. SoC is sometimes divided into:
Note: Unless otherwise mentioned, RSoC refers to SoC.
State-of-function (SoF)
SoF reflects battery readiness in terms of usable energy by observing state-of-charge in relation to the available capacity. This can be shown with the tri-state fuel gauge in which the usable capacity is reflected as stored energy in the form of charge (RSoH); the part that can be filled as empty and the unusable part that cannot be restored as dud. SoF can also be presented with the fishbowl icon for a battery evaluation at a glance. Tri-state fuel gauges are seldom used in fear of elevated warranty claims. Some devices offer an access code for service personnel to read SoF.
Figure 2 summarizes battery state-of-health and state-of-charger graphically.
Definition:
SoH State-of-health. Generic term for battery health.
Capacity is leading health indicator
.ASoH Absolute state-of-health of a new battery.
RSoH Relative state-of-health relating to available capacity
SoC State-of-charge. Generic term for charge level.
ASoC Absolute state-of-charge of a new battery.
RSoC Relative state-of-charge; charge level with capacity fade.
Electric Car Batteries
Electric car batteries are one of the most important components in a car system. In BEV cars, batteries are the only “life”. Because, only electrical energy stored in the battery is the only source of energy driving the BEV car. There are no other sources. The types of electric car batteries are also depends on the car system. The most popular electric car battery used is lithium-ion. Batteries that are considered zero emission abbreviated as ZEBRA. The most suitable battery for hybrid electric cars is NiMH. This article will explain at a glance about the different types of electric vehicle batteries and their characteristics along with a little about the Battery Management System (BMS)of an electric car.
Types of Electric Car Batteries
Electric car batteries are different from SLI batteries (starting, lightning and ignition). SLI batteries are batteries that are usually installed in gasoline or diesel cars. This type of electric cars battery is designed as an energy storage system, capable of delivering power for long and sustainable periods.
There are 5 types of electric vehicle batteries to be discussed in this article:
The comparison of the first four types of electric car batteries can be seen as follows:
How do Lithium Batteries Work?
Pioneering work of the lithium battery began in 1912 under G.N. Lewis, but it was not until the early 1970s that the first non-rechargeable lithium batteries became commercially available. Attempts to develop rechargeable lithium batteries followed in the 1980s but failed because of instabilities in the metallic lithium used as anode material. (The metal-lithium battery uses lithium as anode; Li-ion uses graphite as anode and active materials in the cathode.)
Lithium is the lightest of all metals, has the greatest electrochemical potential and provides the largest specific energy per weight. Rechargeable batteries with lithium metal on the anode could provide extraordinarily high energy densities; however, it was discovered in the mid-1980s that cycling produced unwanted dendrites on the anode. These growth particles penetrate the separator and cause an electrical short. The cell temperature would rise quickly and approach the melting point of lithium, causing thermal runaway, also known as “venting with flame.” A large number of rechargeable metallic lithium batteries sent to Japan were recalled in 1991 after a battery in a mobile phone released flaming gases and inflicted burns to a man’s face.
The inherent instability of lithium metal, especially during charging, shifted research to a non-metallic solution using lithium ions. In 1991, Sony commercialized the first Li ion, and today this chemistry has become the most promising and fastest growing battery on the market. Although lower in specific energy than lithium-metal, Li ion is safe, provided the voltage and currents limits are being respected.
Credit for inventing the lithium-cobalt-oxide battery should go to John B Goodenough (1922). It is said that during the developments, a graduate student employed by Nippon Telephone & Telegraph (NTT) worked with Goodenough in the USA. Shortly after the breakthrough, the student traveled back to Japan, taking the discovery with him. Then in 1991, Sony announced an international patent on a lithium-cobalt-oxide cathode. Years of litigation ensued, but Sony was able to keep the patent and Goodenough received nothing for his efforts. In recognition of the contributions made in Li-ion developments, the U.S. National Academy of Engineering awarded Goodenough and other contributors the Charles Stark Draper Prize in 2014. In 2015, Israel awarded Goodenough a $1 million prize, which he will donate to the Texas Materials Institute to assist in materials research.
The key to the superior specific energy is the high cell voltage of 3.60V. Improvements in the active materials and electrolytes have the potential to further boost the energy density. Load characteristics are good and the flat discharge curve offers effective utilization of the stored energy in a desirable and flat voltage spectrum of 3.70–2.80V/cell.
In 1994, the cost to manufacture Li-ion in the 18650 cylindrical cell was over US$10 and the capacity was 1,100mAh. In 2001, the price dropped to below $3 while the capacity rose to 1,900mAh. Today, high energy-dense 18650 cells deliver over 3,000mAh and the costs are dropping. Cost reduction, increased specific energy and the absence of toxic material paved the road to make Li-ion the universally accepted battery for portable applications, heavy industries, electric powertrains and satellites. The 18650 measures 18mm in diameter and 65mm in length.
Li-ion is a low-maintenance battery, an advantage that most other chemistries cannot claim. The battery has no memory and does not need exercising (deliberate full discharge) to keep it in good shape. Self-discharge is less than half that of nickel-based systems and this helps the fuel gauge applications. The nominal cell voltage of 3.60V can directly power mobile phones, tablets and digital cameras, offering simplifications and cost reductions over multi-cell designs. The drawbacks are the need for protection circuits to prevent abuse, as well as high price.
Types of Lithium-ion Batteries
Lithium-ion uses a cathode (positive electrode), an anode (negative electrode) and electrolyte as conductor. (The anode of a discharging battery is negative and the cathode positive . The cathode is metal oxide and the anode consists of porous carbon. During discharge, the ions flow from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte and separator; charge reverses the direction and the ions flow from the cathode to the anode. Figure 1 illustrates the process.
Figure 1 Ion flow in Lithium-ion Battery
Li ion batteries come in many varieties but all have one thing in common – the “lithium-ion” catchword. Although strikingly similar at first glance, these batteries vary in performance and the choice of active materials gives them unique personalities.
Sony’s original lithium-ion battery used coke as the anode (coal product). Since 1997, most Li ion manufacturers, including Sony, shifted to graphite to attain a flatter discharge curve. Graphite is a form of carbon that has long-term cycle stability and is used in lead pencils. It is the most common carbon material, followed by hard and soft carbons. Nanotube carbons have not yet found commercial use in Li-ion as they tend to entangle and affect performance. A future material that promises to enhance the performance of Li-ion is graphine .
FIGURE 2 VOLTAGE DISCHARGE CURVE OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERY
Figure 2 illustrates the voltage discharge curve of a modern Li-ion with graphite anode and the early coke version.
Several additives have been tried, including silicon-based alloys, to enhance the performance of the graphite anode. It takes six carbon (graphite) atoms to bind to a single lithium ion; a single silicon atom can bind to four lithium ions. This means that the silicon anode could theoretically store over 10 times the energy of graphite, but expansion of the anode during charge is a problem. Pure silicone anodes are therefore not practical and only 3–5 percent of silicon is typically added to the anode of a silicon-based to achieve good cycle life.
Using nano-structured lithium-titanate as an anode additive shows promising cycle life, good load capabilities, excellent low-temperature performance and superior safety, but the specific energy is low and the cost is high.
Experimenting with cathode and anode material allows manufacturers to strengthen intrinsic qualities, but one enhancement may compromise another. The so-called Energy Cell optimizes the specific energy (capacity) to achieve long runtimes but at lower specific power; the “Power Cell” offers exceptional specific power but at lower capacity. The “Hybrid Cell” is a compromise and offers a little bit of both.
Manufacturers can attain a high specific energy and low cost relatively easily by adding nickel in lieu of the more expensive cobalt, but this makes the cell less stable. While a start-up company may focus on high specific energy and low price to gain quick market acceptance, safety and durability cannot be compromised. Reputable manufacturers place high integrity on safety and longevity. Table 3 summarizes the advantages and limitations of Li-ion.
Most Li-ion batteries share a similar design consisting of a metal oxide positive electrode (cathode) that is coated onto an aluminum current collector, a negative electrode (anode) made from carbon/graphite coated on a copper current collector, a separator and electrolyte made of lithium salt in an organic solvent.
Table 3 summarizes the advantages and limitations of Li-ion.
Advantages
Limitations
———————————————
Lithium-Ion Battery (Li-On)
This type of electric vehicle battery is most widely applied is the Li-On battery. This battery may already be familiar to us because it is also used in many portable electronic equipment such as cellphones and laptops. The main difference is a matter of scale. Its physical capacity and size on electric cars is much greater – this is often referred to as a traction battery pack.
Li-on batteries have a very high power to weight ratio. This type of electric car battery is high energy efficiency. Performance at high temperatures is also good. The battery has a greater energy ratio per weight – a parameter that is very important for electric car batteries. The smaller the battery weight (same kWH capacity) means the car can travel further with a single charge.
This battery also has a low “self-discharge” level, so the battery is better than any other battery in maintaining its ability to hold its full charge.
In addition, most parts of Li-on batteries can be recycled, making it the right choice for those interested in environmentally conscious electric cars. BEV cars and PHEVs use the most lithium batteries.
Li-on battery Types
Li-ion battery parameters
Types of Lithium-ion
Lithium-ion is named for its active materials; the words are either written in full or shortened by their chemical symbols. A series of letters and numbers strung together can be hard to remember and even harder to pronounce, and battery chemistries are also identified in abbreviated letters.
For example, lithium cobalt oxide, one of the most common Li-ions, has the chemical symbols LiCoO2 and the abbreviation LCO. For reasons of simplicity, the short form Li-cobalt can also be used for this battery. Cobalt is the main active material that gives this battery character. Other Li-ion chemistries are given similar short-form names. This section lists six of the most common Li-ions. All readings are average estimates at time of writing.
Lithium Cobalt Oxide(LiCoO2) — LCO
Its high specific energy makes Li-cobalt the popular choice for mobile phones, laptops and digital cameras. The battery consists of a cobalt oxide cathode and a graphite carbon anode. The cathode has a layered structure and during discharge, lithium ions move from the anode to the cathode. The flow reverses on charge. The drawback of Li-cobalt is a relatively short life span, low thermal stability and limited load capabilities (specific power). Figure 1 illustrates the structure.
Lithium Cobalt structure
The drawback of Li-cobalt is a relatively short life span, low thermal stability and limited load capabilities (specific power). Like other cobalt-blended Li-ion, Li-cobalt has a graphite anode that limits the cycle life by a changing solid electrolyte interface (SEI), thickening on the anode and lithium plating while fast charging and charging at low temperature. Newer systems include nickel, manganese and/or aluminum to improve longevity, loading capabilities and cost.
Li-cobalt should not be charged and discharged at a current higher than its C-rating. This means that an 18650 cell with 2,400mAh can only be charged and discharged at 2,400mA. Forcing a fast charge or applying a load higher than 2,400mA causes overheating and undue stress. For optimal fast charge, the manufacturer recommends a C-rate of 0.8C or about 2,000mA. The mandatory battery protection circuit limits the charge and discharge rate to a safe level of about 1C for the Energy Cell.
The hexagonal spider graphic (Figure 2) summarizes the performance of Li-cobalt in terms of specific energy or capacity that relates to runtime; specific power or the ability to deliver high current; safety; performance at hot and cold temperatures; life span reflecting cycle life and longevity; and cost. Other characteristics of interest not shown in the spider webs are toxicity, fast-charge capabilities, self-discharge and shelf life.
The Li-cobalt is losing favor to Li-manganese, but especially NMC and NCA because of the high cost of cobalt and improved performance by blending with other active cathode materials. (See description of the NMC and NCA below.)
FIGURE 2 SNAPSHOT OF AN AVERAGE LITHIUMCOBALT BATTERY
Summary Table
Lithium Cobalt Oxide: LiCoO2 cathode (~60% Co), graphite anode Short form: LCO or Li-cobalt. Since 1991
Voltages3.60V nominal; typical operating range 3.0–4.2V/cell
Specific energy (capacity)150–200Wh/kg. Specialty cells provide up to 240Wh/kg.
Charge (C-rate)0.7–1C, charges to 4.20V (most cells); 3h charge typical. Charge current above 1C shortens battery life. Charge must be turned off when current saturates at 0.05C.
Discharge (C-rate)1C; 2.50V cut off. Discharge current above 1C shortens battery life.
Cycle life500–1000, related to depth of discharge, load, temperature
Thermal runaway150°C (302°F). Full charge promotes thermal runaway
ApplicationsMobile phones, tablets, laptops, cameras
Comments 2019 Update:Very high specific energy, limited specific power. Cobalt is expensive. Serves as Energy Cell. Market share has stabilized. Early version; no longer relevant.
Lithium Manganese Oxide (LiMn2O4) — LMO
Li-ion with manganese spinel was first published in the Materials Research Bulletin in 1983. In 1996, Moli Energy commercialized a Li-ion cell with lithium manganese oxide as cathode material. The architecture forms a three-dimensional spinel structure that improves ion flow on the electrode, which results in lower internal resistance and improved current handling. A further advantage of spinel is high thermal stability and enhanced safety, but the cycle and calendar life are limited.
Low internal cell resistance enables fast charging and high-current discharging. In an 18650 package, Li-manganese can be discharged at currents of 20–30A with moderate heat buildup. It is also possible to apply one-second load pulses of up to 50A. A continuous high load at this current would cause heat buildup and the cell temperature cannot exceed 80°C (176°F). Li-manganese is used for power tools, medical instruments, as well as hybrid and electric vehicles.
Figure 4 illustrates the formation of a three-dimensional crystalline framework on the cathode of a Li-manganese battery. This spinel structure, which is usually composed of diamond shapes connected into a lattice, appears after initial formation.
FIGURE 4 LITHIUM MANGANESE STRUCTURE
Li-manganese has a capacity that is roughly one-third lower than Li-cobalt. Design flexibility allows engineers to maximize the battery for either optimal longevity (life span), maximum load current (specific power) or high capacity (specific energy). For example, the long-life version in the 18650 cell has a moderate capacity of only 1,100mAh; the high-capacity version is 1,500mAh.
Figure 5 shows the spider web of a typical Li-manganese battery. The characteristics appear marginal but newer designs have improved in terms of specific power, safety and life span. Pure Li-manganese batteries are no longer common today; they may only be used for special applications.
FIGURE 5 SNAPSHOT OF PURE LITHIUM-MANGANESE BATTERY
Most Li-manganese batteries blend with lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) to improve the specific energy and prolong the life span. This combination brings out the best in each system, and the LMO (NMC) is chosen for most electric vehicles, such as the Nissan Leaf, Chevy Volt and BMW i3. The LMO part of the battery, which can be about 30 percent, provides high current boost on acceleration; the NMC part gives the long driving range.
Li-ion research gravitates heavily towards combining Li-manganese with cobalt, nickel, manganese and/or aluminum as active cathode material. In some architecture, a small amount of silicon is added to the anode. This provides a 25 percent capacity boost; however, the gain is commonly connected with a shorter cycle life as silicon grows and shrinks with charge and discharge, causing mechanical stress.
These three active metals, as well as the silicon enhancement can conveniently be chosen to enhance the specific energy (capacity), specific power (load capability) or longevity. While consumer batteries go for high capacity, industrial applications require battery systems that have good loading capabilities, deliver a long life and provide safe and dependable service.
Summary Table
Lithium Manganese Oxide: LiMn2O4 cathode. graphite anode Short form: LMO or Li-manganese (spinel structure) Since 1996
Voltages3.70V (3.80V) nominal; typical operating range 3.0–4.2V/cell
Specific energy (capacity)100–150Wh/kg
Charge (C-rate)0.7–1C typical, 3C maximum, charges to 4.20V (most cells) Charge must be turned off when current saturates at 0.05C.
Discharge (C-rate)1C; 10C possible with some cells, 30C pulse (5s), 2.50V cut-off
Cycle life300–700 (related to depth of discharge, temperature)
Thermal runaway250°C (482°F) typical. High charge promotes thermal runaway
ApplicationsPower tools, medical devices, electric powertrains
Comments 2019 Update:High power but less capacity; safer than Li-cobalt; commonly mixed with NMC to improve performance. Less relevant now; limited growth potential.
Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide (LiNiMnCoO2) — NMC
One of the most successful Li-ion systems is a cathode combination of nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC). Similar to Li-manganese, these systems can be tailored to serve as Energy Cells or Power Cells. For example, NMC in an 18650 cell for moderate load condition has a capacity of about 2,800mAh and can deliver 4A to 5A; NMC in the same cell optimized for specific power has a capacity of only about 2,000mAh but delivers a continuous discharge current of 20A. A silicon-based anode will go to 4,000mAh and higher but at reduced loading capability and shorter cycle life. Silicon added to graphite has the drawback that the anode grows and shrinks with charge and discharge, making the cell mechanically unstable.
The secret of NMC lies in combining nickel and manganese. An analogy of this is table salt in which the main ingredients, sodium and chloride, are toxic on their own but mixing them serves as seasoning salt and food preserver. Nickel is known for its high specific energy but poor stability; manganese has the benefit of forming a spinel structure to achieve low internal resistance but offers a low specific energy. Combining the metals enhances each other strengths.
NMC is the battery of choice for power tools, e-bikes and other electric powertrains. The cathode combination is typically one-third nickel, one-third manganese and one-third cobalt, also known as 1-1-1. Cobalt is expensive and in limited supply. Battery manufacturers are reducing the cobalt content with some compromise in performance. A successful combination is NCM532 with 5 parts nickel, 3 parts cobalt and 2 parts manganese. Other combinations are NMC622 and NMC811. Cobalt stabilizes nickel, a high energy active material.
New electrolytes and additives enable charging to 4.4V/cell and higher to boost capacity. Figure 7 demonstrates the characteristics of the NMC.
FIGURE 7 SNAPSHOT OF NMC BATTERY
There is a move towards NMC-blended Li-ion as the system can be built economically and it achieves a good performance. The three active materials of nickel, manganese and cobalt can easily be blended to suit a wide range of applications for automotive and energy storage systems (EES) that need frequent cycling. The NMC family is growing in its diversity.
Summary Table
Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide: LiNiMnCoO2. cathode, graphite anode Short form: NMC (NCM, CMN, CNM, MNC, MCN similar with different metal combinations) Since 2008
Voltages3.60V, 3.70V nominal; typical operating range 3.0–4.2V/cell, or higher
Specific energy (capacity)150–220Wh/kg
Charge (C-rate)0.7–1C, charges to 4.20V, some go to 4.30V; 3h charge typical. Charge current above 1C shortens battery life. Charge must be turned off when current saturates at 0.05C.
Discharge (C-rate)1C; 2C possible on some cells; 2.50V cut-off
Cycle life1000–2000 (related to depth of discharge, temperature)
Thermal runaway210°C (410°F) typical. High charge promotes thermal runaway
Cost~$420 per kWh[1]
ApplicationsE-bikes, medical devices, EVs, industrial
Comments 2019 Update:Provides high capacity and high power. Serves as Hybrid Cell. Favorite chemistry for many uses; market share is increasing. Leading system; dominant cathode chemistry.
Lithium Iron Phosphate(LiFePO4) — LFP
In 1996, the University of Texas (and other contributors) discovered phosphate as cathode material for rechargeable lithium batteries. Li-phosphate offers good electrochemical performance with low resistance. This is made possible with nano-scale phosphate cathode material. The key benefits are high current rating and long cycle life, besides good thermal stability, enhanced safety and tolerance if abused.
Li-phosphate is more tolerant to full charge conditions and is less stressed than other lithium-ion systems if kept at high voltage for a prolonged time. As a trade-off, its lower nominal voltage of 3.2V/cell reduces the specific energy below that of cobalt-blended lithium-ion. With most batteries, cold temperature reduces performance and elevated storage temperature shortens the service life, and Li-phosphate is no exception. Li-phosphate has a higher self-discharge than other Li-ion batteries, which can cause balancing issues with aging. This can be mitigated by buying high quality cells and/or using sophisticated control electronics, both of which increase the cost of the pack. Cleanliness in manufacturing is of importance for longevity. There is no tolerance for moisture, lest the battery will only deliver 50 cycles. Figure 9 summarizes the attributes of Li-phosphate.
FIGURE 9 SNAPSHOT OF TYPICAL LI-PHOSPHATE BATTERY
Li-phosphate is often used to replace the lead acid starter battery. Four cells in series produce 12.80V, a similar voltage to six 2V lead acid cells in series. Vehicles charge lead acid to 14.40V (2.40V/cell) and maintain a topping charge. Topping charge is applied to maintain full charge level and prevent sulfation on lead acid batteries.
With four Li-phosphate cells in series, each cell tops at 3.60V, which is the correct full-charge voltage. At this point, the charge should be disconnected but the topping charge continues while driving. Li-phosphate is tolerant to some overcharge; however, keeping the voltage at 14.40V for a prolonged time, as most vehicles do on a long road trip, could stress Li-phosphate. Time will tell how durable Li-Phosphate will be as a lead acid replacement with a regular vehicle charging system. Cold temperature also reduces performance of Li-ion and this could affect the cranking ability in extreme cases.
Summary Table
Lithium Iron Phosphate: LiFePO4 cathode, graphite anode Short form: LFP or Li-phosphate Since 1996
Voltages3.20, 3.30V nominal; typical operating range 2.5–3.65V/cell
Specific energy (capacity)90–120Wh/kg
Charge (C-rate)1C typical, charges to 3.65V; 3h charge time typical Charge must be turned off when current saturates at 0.05C.
Discharge (C-rate)1C, 25C on some cells; 40A pulse (2s); 2.50V cut-off (lower that 2V causes damage)
Cycle life2000 and higher (related to depth of discharge, temperature)
Thermal runaway270°C (518°F) Very safe battery even if fully charged
Cost~$580 per kWh[1]
ApplicationsPortable and stationary needing high load currents and endurance
Comments 2019 Update:Very flat voltage discharge curve but low capacity. One of safest Li-ions. Used for special markets. Elevated self-discharge. Used primarily for energy storage, moderate growth.
See Lithium Manganese Iron Phosphate (LMFP) for manganese enhanced L-phosphate.
Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (LiNiCoAlO2) — NCA
Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide battery, or NCA, has been around since 1999 for special applications. It shares similarities with NMC by offering high specific energy, reasonably good specific power and a long life span. Less flattering are safety and cost. Figure 11 summarizes the six key characteristics. NCA is a further development of lithium nickel oxide; adding aluminum gives the chemistry greater stability.
FIGURE 11 SNAPSHOT OF NCA
Summary Table
Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide: LiNiCoAlO2 cathode (~9% Co), graphite anode Short form: NCA or Li-aluminum. Since 1999
Voltages3.60V nominal; typical operating range 3.0–4.2V/cell
Specific energy (capacity)200-260Wh/kg; 300Wh/kg predictable
Charge (C-rate)0.7C, charges to 4.20V (most cells), 3h charge typical, fast charge possible with some cells Charge must be turned off when current saturates at 0.05C.
Discharge (C-rate)1C typical; 3.00V cut-off; high discharge rate shortens battery life
Cycle life500 (related to depth of discharge, temperature)
Thermal runaway150°C (302°F) typical, High charge promotes thermal runaway
Cost~$350 per kWh[1]
ApplicationsMedical devices, industrial, electric powertrain (Tesla)
Comments 2019 Update:Shares similarities with Li-cobalt. Serves as Energy Cell. Mainly used by Panasonic and Tesla; growth potential.
Table 12: Characteristics of Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide
Lithium Titanate (Li2TiO3) — LTO
Batteries with lithium titanate anodes have been known since the 1980s. Li-titanate replaces the graphite in the anode of a typical lithium-ion battery and the material forms into a spinel structure. The cathode can be lithium manganese oxide or NMC. Li-titanate has a nominal cell voltage of 2.40V, can be fast charged and delivers a high discharge current of 10C, or 10 times the rated capacity. The cycle count is said to be higher than that of a regular Li-ion. Li-titanate is safe, has excellent low-temperature discharge characteristics and obtains a capacity of 80 percent at –30°C (–22°F).
LTO (commonly Li4Ti5O12) has advantages over the conventional cobalt-blended Li-ion with graphite anode by attaining zero-strain property, no SEI film formation and no lithium plating when fast charging and charging at low temperature. Thermal stability under high temperature is also better than other Li-ion systems; however, the battery is expensive. At only 65Wh/kg, the specific energy is low, rivalling that of NiCd. Li-titanate charges to 2.80V/cell, and the end of discharge is 1.80V/cell. Figure 13 illustrates the characteristics of the Li-titanate battery. Typical uses are electric powertrains, UPS and solar-powered street lighting.
FIGURE 13 SNAPSHOT OF Li TITANATE
Summary Table
Lithium Titanate: Cathode can be lithium manganese oxide or NMC; Li2TiO3 (titanate) anode Short form: LTO or Li-titanate Commercially available since about 2008.
Voltages2.40V nominal; typical operating range 1.8–2.85V/cell
Specific energy (capacity)50–80Wh/kg
Charge (C-rate)1C typical; 5C maximum, charges to 2.85V Charge must be turned off when current saturates at 0.05C.
Discharge (C-rate)10C possible, 30C 5s pulse; 1.80V cut-off on LCO/LTO
Cycle life3,000–7,000
Thermal runawayOne of safest Li-ion batteries
Cost~$1,005 per kWh[1]ApplicationsUPS, electric powertrain (Mitsubishi i-MiEV, Honda Fit EV), solar-powered street lighting
Comments 2019 Update:Long life, fast charge, wide temperature range but low specific energy and expensive. Among safest Li-ion batteries. Ability to ultra-fast charge; high cost limits to special application.
TABLE 14 CHARACTERISTIC OF LITHIUM NICKEL COBALT ALUMINIUM OXIDE BATTERY
Future Batteries
Figure 15 compares the specific energy of lead-, nickel- and lithium-based systems. While Li-aluminum (NCA) is the clear winner by storing more capacity than other systems, this only applies to specific energy. In terms of specific power and thermal stability, Li-manganese (LMO) and Li-phosphate (LFP) are superior. Li-titanate (LTO) may have low capacity but this chemistry outlives most other batteries in terms of life span and also has the best cold temperature performance. Moving towards the electric powertrain, safety and cycle life will gain dominance over capacity. (LCO stands for Li-cobalt, the original Li-ion.)
———————————————
Nickel-based Batteries
Nickel-based Batteries
For 50 years, portable devices relied almost exclusively on nickel-cadmium (NiCd). This generated a large amount of data, but in the 1990s, nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) took over the reign to solve the toxicity problem of the otherwise robust NiCd. Many of the characteristics of NiCd were transferred to the NiMH camp, offering a quasi-replacement as these two systems are similar. Because of environmental regulations, NiCd is limited to specialty applications today.
Nickel-cadmium (NiCd)
Invented by Waldemar Jungner in 1899, the nickel-cadmium battery offered several advantages over lead acid, then the only other rechargeable battery; however, the materials for NiCd were expensive. Developments were slow, but in 1932, advancements were made to deposit the active materials inside a porous nickel-plated electrode. Further improvements occurred in 1947 by absorbing the gases generated during charge, which led to the modern sealed NiCd battery.
For many years, NiCd was the preferred battery choice for two-way radios, emergency medical equipment, professional video cameras and power tools. In the late 1980s, the ultra-high capacity NiCd rocked the world with capacities that were up to 60 percent higher than the standard NiCd. Packing more active material into the cell achieved this, but the gain was shadowed by higher internal resistance and reduced cycle count.
The standard NiCd remains one of the most rugged and forgiving batteries, and the airline industry stays true to this system, but it needs proper care to attain longevity. NiCd, and in part also NiMH, have memory effect that causes a loss of capacity if not given a periodic full discharge cycle. The battery appears to remember the previous energy delivered and once a routine has been established, it does not want to give more.
According to RWTH, Aachen, Germany (2018), the cost of NiCd is about $400 per kWh[1]. Table 1 lists the advantages and limitations of the standard NiCd.
Advantages
Limitations
Nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH)
Research on nickel-metal-hydride started in 1967; however, instabilities with the metal-hydride led to the development of the nickel-hydrogen (NiH) instead. New hydride alloys discovered in the 1980s eventually improved the stability issues and today NiMH provides 40 percent higher specific energy than the standard NiCd
Nickel-metal-hydride is not without drawbacks. The battery is more delicate and trickier to charge than NiCd. With 20 percent self-discharge in the first 24 hours after charge and 10 percent per month thereafter, NiMH ranks among the highest in the class. Modifying the hydride materials lowers the self-discharge and reduces corrosion of the alloy, but this decreases the specific energy. Batteries for the electric powertrain make use of this modification to achieve the needed robustness and long life span.
Hybrid Nickel-Metal (NiMH) Batteries
NiMH batteries are more widely used by hybrid-electric vehicles (HEV), but are also used successfully in some BEV cars. This type of hybrid electric car battery does not get power from outside (can be recharged from an outside source of the car system). The recharging of hybrid electric car batteries depends on engine speed, wheels and regenerative braking.
NiMH batteries have a longer life cycle than lithium-ion batteries or SLA batteries. NiMH batteries are safe and tolerant of incorrect usage. The biggest disadvantages of NiMH batteries include:
These deficiencies make NiMH less effective as a battery for electric cars whose batteries must be able to be recharged from outside the system, such as from the PLN network. That is why the car battery is the most widely applied by hybrid cars.
Consumer Applications
NiMH has become one of the most readily available rechargeable batteries for consumer use. Battery manufacturers, such as Panasonic, Energizer, Duracell and Rayovac, have recognized the need for a durable and low-cost rechargeable battery and offer NiMH in AA, AAA and other sizes. The battery manufacturers want to lure buyers away from disposable alkaline to rechargeable batteries.
The NiMH battery for the consumer market is an alternative for the failed reusable alkaline that appeared in the 1990s. Limited cycle life and poor loading characteristics hindered its success.
Table 2 compares the specific energy, voltage, self-discharge and runtime of over-the-counter batteries. Available in AA, AAA and other sizes, these cells can be used in portable devices designed for these norms. Even though the cell voltages may vary, the end-of-discharge voltages are common, which is typically 1V/cell. Portable devices have some flexibility in terms of voltage range. It is important not to mix cells and to always use the same type of batteries in the holder. Safety concerns and voltage incompatibility prevent the sale of most lithium-ion batteries in AA and AAA formats.
Battery Type NiMH
CAPACITY 2,700mAh, rechargeable
VOLTAGE 1.2 VOLTS
Self-discharge Capacityafter 1 Year Storage 50 %
Runtime EstimatedPhotos on Digital Camera 600 SHOTS
Battery Type ENELOOP
CAPACITY 2,500mAh, rechargeable
VOLTAGE 1.2 VOLTS
Self-discharge Capacityafter 1 Year Storage 85 %
Runtime EstimatedPhotos on Digital Camera 500 SHOTS
Battery Type REGULAR ALKALINE
CAPACITY 2,800mAh, non-rechargeable
VOLTAGE 1.5 VOLTS
Self-discharge Capacityafter 1 Year Storage 95% - 10 year shelf life
Runtime EstimatedPhotos on Digital Camera 100 SHOTS
Battery Type REUSABLE ALKALINE
CAPACITY 2,000mAh, lower on subsequent recharge
VOLTAGE 1.4 VOLTS
Self-discharge Capacityafter 1 Year Storage 95%
Runtime EstimatedPhotos on Digital Camera 100 SHOTS
Battery Type LITHIUM LiFeS2
CAPACITY 2,500–3,400mAh, non-rechargeable
VOLTAGE 1.4 VOLTS
Self-discharge Capacityafter 1 Year Very low - 10 year shelf life
Runtime EstimatedPhotos on Digital Camera 690 SHOTS
Eneloop is a Panasonic (2013) trademark, based on NiMH. * Self-discharge is highest right after charge, and then tapers off.
High self-discharge is of ongoing concern to consumers using rechargeable batteries, and NiMH behaves like a leaky basketball or bicycle tire. A flashlight or portable entertainment device with a NiMH battery gets “flat” when put away for only a few weeks. Having to recharge the device before each use does not sit well with many consumers especially for flashlights that sit on standby for the occasional power-outage; alkaline keeps the charge for 10 years.
The Eneloop NiMH by Panasonic and Sanyo has reduced the self-discharge by a factor of six. This means you can store the charged battery six times longer than a regular NiMH before a recharge becomes necessary. The drawback of the Eneloop to regular NiMH is a slightly lower specific energy.
Table 3 summarizes the advantages and limitations of industrial-grade NiMH. The table does not include the Eneloop and other consumer brands.
Advantages
Limitations
Nickel-iron (NiFe)
After inventing nickel-cadmium in 1899, Sweden’s Waldemar Jungner tried to substitute cadmium for iron to save money; however, poor charge efficiency and gassing (hydrogen formation) prompted him to abandon the development without securing a patent.
In 1901, Thomas Edison continued the development of the nickel-iron battery as a substitute to lead acid for electric vehicles. He claimed that nickel-iron, immersed in an alkaline electrolyte, was “far superior to batteries using lead plates in sulfuric acid.” He counted on the emerging electric vehicle market and lost out when gasoline-powered cars took over. His disappointment grew when the auto industry used lead acid as the battery for starter, lighting and ignition (SLI) instead of nickel-iron.
Edison promoted Nickel-iron as being lighter and cleaner than lead acid. Lower operational costs were to offset the higher initial cost. In ca. 1901 Edison recognized the need for the electric car. He said that the same care should be given to the battery as the horse and railroad locomotive.
The nickel-iron battery (NiFe) uses an oxide-hydroxide cathode and an iron anode with potassium hydroxide electrolyte that produces a nominal cell voltage of 1.20V. NiFe is resilient to overcharge and over-discharge and can last for more than 20 years in standby applications. Resistance to vibrations and high temperatures made NiFe the preferred battery for mining in Europe; during World War II the battery powered German V-1 flying bombs and the V-2 rockets. Other uses are railroad signaling, forklifts and stationary applications.
NiFe has a low specific energy of about 50Wh/kg, has poor low-temperature performance and exhibits high self-discharge of 20–40 percent a month. This, together with high manufacturing cost, prompted the industry to stay faithful to lead acid.
Improvements are being made, and NiFe is becoming a viable alternative to lead acid in off-grid power systems. Pocket plate technology lowered the self-discharge; the battery is virtually immune to over- and under-charging and should last for over 50 years. This compares to less than 12 years with deep cycle lead acids in cycling mode. NiFe costs about four times as much as lead acid and is comparable with Li-ion in purchase price.
Nickel-iron batteries use a taper charge similar to NiCd and NiMH. Do not use constant voltage charge as with lead acid and lithium-ion batteries, but allow the voltage to float freely. Similar to nickel-based batteries, the cell voltage begins to drop at full charge as the internal gas builds up and the temperature rises. Avoid overcharging as this causes water evaporation and dry-out. Only trickle charge to compensate self-discharge.
Low capacity can often be improved by applying a high discharge current of up to three times the C-rate for periods of 30 minutes. Assure that the temperature of the electrolyte does not exceed 46?C (115?F).
Nickel-zinc (NiZn)
Nickel-zinc is similar to nickel-cadmium in that it uses an alkaline electrolyte and a nickel electrode, but it differs in voltage; NiZn provides 1.65V/cell rather than 1.20V, which NiCd and NiMH deliver. NiZn charges at a constant current to 1.9V/cell and cannot take trickle charge, also known as maintenance charge. The specific energy is 100Wh/kg and can be cycled 200–300 times. NiZn has no heavy toxic materials and can easily be recycled. Some packaging is available in the AA cell format.
In 1901, Thomas Edison was awarded the U.S. patent for a rechargeable nickel–zinc battery system that was installed in rail cars between 1932 and 1948. NiZn suffered from high self-discharge and short cycle life caused by dendrite growth, which often led to an electrical short. Improvements in the electrolyte have reduced this problem, and NiZn is being considered again for commercial uses. Low cost, high power output and good temperature operating range make this chemistry attractive.
Nickel-hydrogen (NiH)
When research for nickel-metal-hydride began in 1967, problems with metal instabilities caused a shift towards the development of the nickel-hydrogen battery (NiH). NiH uses a steel canister to store hydrogen at a pressure of 8,270kPa (1,200psi). The cell includes solid nickel electrodes, hydrogen electrodes, gas screens and electrolyte that are encapsulated in the pressurized vessel.
NiH has a nominal cell voltage of 1.25V and the specific energy is 40–75Wh/kg. The advantages are long service life, even with full discharge cycles, good calendar life due to low corrosion, minimal self-discharge, and a remarkable temperature performance of –28°C to 54°C (–20°F to 130°F). These attributes make NiH ideal for satellite use. Scientists tried to develop NiH batteries for terrestrial use, but low specific energy and high cost worked against this endeavor. A single cell for a satellite application costs thousands of dollars. As NiH replaced NiCd in satellites, there is a move towards long-life Li-ion.
———————————————
Lead-Acid (SLA) Batteries
SLA (lead-acid) batteries are the oldest rechargeable batteries. Compared to lithium and NiMH batteries, lead-acid batteries do lose capacity and are much heavier, but the price is relatively cheap and safe. There are large capacity SLA electric car batteries under development, but SLA batteries are now only used by commercial vehicles as a secondary storage system.
Lead-acid battery parameters
———————————————
Ultra-capacitor Batteries
The ultra-capacitor battery is not like the general definition of a battery. In contrast to other electro-chemical batteries, this type of electric vehicle battery actually stores polarized liquid between the electrode and the electrolyte. As the surface area of the liquid increases, the energy storage capacity also increases. Like SLA batteries, ultra-capacitor batteries are very suitable as secondary storage devices in electric vehicles. This is because the ultra-capacitor helps electro-chemical batteries increase their load levels. In addition, ultra-capacitor can provide extra power to electric vehicles during acceleration and regenerative braking.
———————————————
ZEBRA Batteries
The battery for ZEBRA electric cars is a low-temperature variant of sodium-sulfur (NaS) batteries and is a development of ZEBRA (originally “Zeolite Battery Research Africa” then became a “Zero Emissions Batteries Research Activity” battery) in 1985. From the beginning ZEBRA batteries were indeed developed for electric vehicle applications. The battery uses NaAlCl4 with Na + -beta-alumina ceramic electrolyte.
Characteristics of ZEBRA batteries
Advantages of ZEBRA battery
Disadvantages of ZEBRA battery
———————————————
Battery Management System
Battery management system or Battery Management systems (BMS) is a technology system that functions to maximize the life of electric vehicle battery and its characteristics. It is strongly recommended that all battery powered electric vehicles be installed BMS. The aim is to ensure the battery stays within the ideal working parameters. Some battery chemicals (such as lead acid) are quite tolerant of misuse, but lithium and NiMH can both be permanently damaged by a misuse such as over charging, over discharging, or overheating. All types of electric car batteries? will benefit greatly by installing a BMS.
Some special functions of the battery management system include:
EV battery types explained: Lithium-ion vs LFP pros & cons
Which electric car battery technology is best? We break it down
NMC vs LFP: Which EV battery is best?
Snapshot
Battery packs are central to power electric vehicles, but not all are created equally.
Car brands often use terms such as ‘lithium-ion’ and ‘LFP’ in marketing material, but what do they mean? Importantly, what are the differences and which is best for your needs when considering the electric switch ?
?? What is an EV battery?
The electric car battery is the key source of ‘juice’ to power the electric drive unit and vehicle.
It is a large, high-voltage energy storage block that’s positioned underneath the vehicle, similar to a fuel tank.
Conventional EV battery packs are made up of a number of smaller module blocks, which contain cells within them (either pouch, prismatic or cylindrical shaped).
Hydrogen or battery-electric cars: Which is right for Australia?
Why are battery EVs starting to take off while Hydrogen continues to be stuck at ground level.?
The cells are made up of a cathode (positive terminal), a separator with liquid electrolyte, and an anode (negative terminal).
Charged particles (ions) need to move from cathode to anode via the electrolyte when charging – and vice versa when discharging – in order for electrons to move around between cathode and anode current collectors.
Ultimately, the process of moving ions and electrons will charge and discharge a battery.
2024 BYD Dolphin & Seal score five stars in ANCAP first for EVs
It is the first time an EV with a structural battery construction has been tested
What’s a structural EV battery?
‘Structural batteries’ are emerging, where cells are directly embedded within the vehicle chassis, eliminating the need for space- and weight-wasting modules in a pack enclosure.
The BYD Seal debuted the unique construction in Australia, which is said to enable the electric sedan to be more space efficient, sit lower for better aerodynamic efficiency, and improve body stiffness.
However, this design has been questioned by vehicle design engineer and advisor Sandy Munro, who told Reuters that structural batteries have “zero repairability” in the event of an accident.
A variety of contentious raw materials making up each part of an EV battery. Differences in the cathode side in particular result in the three key battery types available today.
?? Lithium-ion battery
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries are the most common type in new EVs today, with two main cathode chemistry makeups.
?? NMC
The good
The not so good
Nickel-manganese-cobalt (NMC) is the most common battery cathode material found in EV models today due to its good range and charging performance.
The key advantage for NMC batteries is higher energy density up to around 250Wh/kg – which means it can provide longer driving range by packing more energy in the volume of each cell and be space-efficient.
However, due to this, its cells have lower thermal stability and tend to reach the thermal runaway point earlier – a dangerous chain heating reaction causing a difficult-to-extinguish fire.
How long do EV batteries last? Lifespan & replacement cost explained
NMC batteries also require expensive, supply-limited and environmentally unfriendly raw materials – including lithium, cobalt, nickel and manganese.
On the other hand, due to lithium-ion's global prevalence, there are more facilities set up to repurpose and recycle these materials once they eventually reach their end-of-life.
NMC also has a shorter lifespan by only being able to handle an estimated 1000 to 2000 full recharging cycles (0 to 100 per cent counts) depending on the manufacturer. But, the capacity may already degrade by around 40 per cent after 1000 cycles, .
Most car brands recommend an 80 per cent everyday charging limit on NMC packs to maintain good health.
Example NMC battery EV models
Tesla Model Y (Long Range and Performance only)
Tesla Model 3 (Long Range and Performance only)
Polestar 2
Volvo EX 30
BMW iX3
?? NCA
The good
The not so good
领英推荐
Nickel-cobalt-aluminium (NCA) cathode lithium-ion batteries are mostly similar to NMC.
However, NCA swaps the manganese with more sustainable aluminium and uses less cobalt in the cathode.
Therefore, it still shares similar advantages and disadvantages with NMC across driving range, charging, longevity and thermal safety.
But, NCA isn’t as commonly adopted by car brands – though not all manufacturers disclose the exact cathode used and instead just quote 'lithium-ion'.
Example NCA battery EV models
Audi Q8E-tron
Tesla Model 3 (older pre-2021 models)
Tesla Models S and Tesla Model X (discontinued in Australia)
?? Lithium-ferrous-phosphate battery
Lithium-ferrous-phosphate (LiFePO 4) cathodes are emerging in more lower-priced, entry-level EV models as it’s cheaper to produce.
?? LFP
The good
The not so good
Lithium-iron-phosphate (LFP) batteries address the disadvantages of lithium-ion with a longer lifespan and better safety.
Importantly, it can sustain an estimated 3000 to 5000 charge cycles before a significant degradation hit – about double the longevity of typical NMC and NCA lithium-ion batteries.
Deep full recharging to 100 per cent also doesn’t drastically impact the battery health, which is why there’s generally no recommended daily charging limit to allow always utilising the full driving range capabilities. Regular full charging is in fact encouraged to help calibrate the cells.
The better stability also means it’s less susceptible to generating thermal runaway in the event of a short circuit or severe crash; it’s safer to operate in extremely low and high temperature environments.
How sustainable are electric cars really? Charging, battery & waste explained The true environmental impact of EVs continue to be questioned, so are they really greener than ICE cars? Here is a comprehensive evidence based breakdown.
However, LFP batteries are heavier and have lower energy density of up to around 150Wh/kg.
Therefore, it typically offers less driving range than the equivalently-sized lithium-ion pack.
The chemistry is also more sensitive to low temperatures, resulting in a higher chance of DCcharging speed throttling during colder climates.
While it doesn’t contain any environmentally contentious cobalt, nickel and manganese, it still relies on the expensive lithium material.
Even though it has a smaller carbon footprint from the factory, the lack of said materials means it overall has less recyclable content than a typical lithium-ion battery – with the industry still working to improve extraction processes for LFP.
Example LFP battery EV models
BYD Dolphin
MG4 (Exite 51 only
GWM Ora (standard Range only)
BYD Atto 3
BYD Seal
Tesla Model 3 (RWD only)
Tesla Model Y (RWD only)
?? What are the alternatives?
It’s clear that there’s no ‘perfect’ EV battery. But, technology has significantly improved since the old lead-acid days – and is still evolving.
LFP is most suitable, unless range and fast charging is a priority for you
?? Which is the best EV battery?
Each battery cathode chemistry has its own unique advantages and disadvantages.
LFP is theoretically the best as it currently is the longest-lasting battery type, can be regularly charged to 100 per cent, has less thermal runaway risk, and is cheaper to produce to enable more affordable EVs.
Meanwhile, lithium-ion (with NMC and NCA cathodes) provides more driving range, faster charging performance, and contains more recyclable content with today’s facilities.
In many respects, it's the old 'horses for courses' argument, though the next few years will see significant improvements in EV batteries.
Importantly, EV battery producers and car manufacturers today already pack a range of provisions to ensure they are safe to use on our roads – regardless of the battery type.
?? Is it time to make the electric switch?
EVs are not for everyone (for now), but they are right for most.
True EV sustainability, charging reliability, and the purchase price remain key perceived issues. For more, check out our /Electric hub guides below.
Types of EV Batteries
Hybrid, plug-in hybrid, and all-electric vehicles all use battery packs. The type of battery used varies depending on the type of vehicle you are driving. As of this writing, current battery packs are designed to outlast the vehicle they are installed in and battery warranties are generally 8 years or 100,000 miles. When used in moderate climates, many of today’s EV batteries can last up to 15 years.
The different types of batteries being used today are lithium-ion, nickel-metal hydride, lead-acid, and ultracapacitors. New technology such as solid-state batteries are just a few years away from being used in EVs and will change the way people think about electric cars. For one thing, they have a range of over 500 miles on a single charge.
Lithium-Ion Batteries
Most of today’s EVs use lithium-ion battery packs. It is the same technology used in smartphones and laptop computers and are known for having a high power-to-weight ratio. Very efficient and offering excellent high-temperature performance, they are currently the best option for holding a stable charge and are recyclable. However, lithium-ion batteries have come under a lot of scrutiny for the not so eco-friendly way the materials for them are mined. For instance, it takes 500,000 gallons of water to refine one ton of lithium.
Nickel-Metal Hydride Batteries
You’ll mostly find these battery packs in hybrid vehicles that combine a gasoline engine with electric motors. These cars use gasoline power to recharge the onboard battery. Nickel-metal hydride batteries generally last longer than lithium-ion batteries and are safe to use. The drawbacks are that they are expensive to produce, generate a lot of heat at high temperatures, and have a high discharge rate.
Lead-Acid Batteries
These are the kind of 12-volt batteries used in gasoline-powered cars to start the motor. They have been around a long time and are inexpensive and safe to use. However, lead-acid batteries have a relatively short life, and don’t do well in cold weather. This sort of battery is only used in EVs to power supplemental auxiliary features; providing backup power to power steering, brake boosting, and to power the safety features in EVs.
Ultracapacitors
Like lead-acid batteries, ultracapacitors are used as secondary storage devices and help to level the load of lithium-ion battery packs. They basically store polarized liquid between an electrode and an electrolyte. Ultracapacitors also give EVs an extra boost of power during acceleration.
Solid-State Batteries for Electric Cars
In the next few years, solid-state batteries may well be the battery of choice for electric cars. They can reduce the carbon footprint of EV batteries by nearly 40 percent. Solid-state technology uses solid ceramic material instead of liquid electrolytes to carry the electric current, making the batteries cheaper, lighter, and faster to charge. BMW and Ford are testing the batteries now for use in 2025 vehicles. Solid-state batteries are also capable of having a driving range of 500 miles, eliminating “range anxiety.”
OVERVIEW OF EV BATTERIES
An electric battery is a device that stores chemical energy that is converted into electricity. The modern electric battery was invented by Italian physicist Alessandro Volta in 1800. This remarkable invention has enabled us to power much of our modern world with advanced devices such as laptops, smart phones, satellites, and even electric cars.?
Consumers often have concerns about battery life when considering purchasing an electric vehicle (EV). The thought of replacing a battery pack is particularly daunting considering the average cost is $5,000-$15,000, and that’s not including the cost of labor. However, the battery packs that power today’s EVs are built to last longer than the vehicle itself.
How Long Do Electric Car Batteries Last??
The lithium-ion battery in your electric car is designed for extended life. However, electric car batteries will slowly begin to lose the amount of energy they can store over time. This phenomenon is called “battery degradation” and can result in reduced energy capacity, range, power and overall efficiency.??
Battery degradation is not easy to predict. Not all brands perform the same, and every vehicle is different in how it is driven, charged and maintained. On the bright side, it’s not uncommon for modern EV batteries to last more than 10 years and some will go well beyond that before needing to be replaced. The average EV owner will sell their car long before they need to replace the battery pack.??
Environmental factors, such as continued exposure to extreme temperatures, will impact battery performance and may lead to degradation. In particular, batteries don’t perform very well when the temperature is below 20 degrees Fahrenheit. When it’s really cold and you’re using the car’s heater, your range can temporarily drop by as much as 40%.?
To maintain a battery pack at peak performance, it is recommended to keep EVs charged to between 60% and 80%, minimize fast charging and avoid extreme temperatures over long periods of time.??
EV Battery Warranty from Automakers?
Most automakers have an 8 to 10-year or 100,000 miles warranty period on their batteries. This is because federal regulation in the U.S. mandates that electric car batteries be covered for a minimum of eight years.??
However, the terms of the warranty can vary. Some automakers only cover an EV’s battery pack against a complete failure while automakers like Tesla, Nissan and Volkswagen will honor the battery warranty if the capacity percentage drops below a specified threshold, typically 60-70%, during the warranty period.?
Before purchasing any vehicle, it’s best to check the fine print on its warranties. For example, the Nissan Leaf has a percentage guarantee of approximately 75%; however, they use their own measurement units represented in “bars.” A full Leaf battery has 12 bars, and the included battery warranty guarantees it for nine bars of charge.??
Warranty Exclusions?
Battery repairs can be expensive, so it is important to understand the exclusions or conditions that can impact the warranty of an EV battery. Some exclusions might include, but are not limited to:
What About Hybrid Car Batteries??
Hybrid car batteries are similar to EV batteries; they are simply smaller. Since the gasoline engine, electric motor and battery work together in hybrids, if one is not performing optimally, it will impact the other.??
Hybrid batteries typically last a vehicle’s lifetime with modern vehicles routinely reaching 100,000 to 150,000 miles or much more. Accordingly, automakers usually offer a warranty for at least 80,000 miles. In most cases, you can expect to achieve over double that mileage without an issue. Some automakers such as Hyundai even offer lifetime warranties. As a result, if you’re the owner of a hybrid you’ll likely never have to worry about replacing the battery.?
There is also a time component to battery life — it degrades even if you don’t drive the car long distances. Hybrid batteries are designed to perform for at least 10 years. To cover any unexpected failure, time-based warranties are now standard in the industry. There is a federal mandate for warranties to cover eight years of hybrid car battery life, so most automakers offer warranties of eight years or more.?
If you're faced with replacing a battery on an out-of-warranty car, there's no need to panic. The cost of a new battery pack continues to decline. Some technicians can even install an approved used battery pack salvaged from a wrecked vehicle, which would greatly reduce the potential repair cost.?
Afterlife of EV Batteries?
As electric car adoption continues to gain momentum, used batteries pose a serious challenge to the environment. What do we do with all the discarded batteries? As of this writing, there are two solutions: they can be recycled or repurposed.?
Recycling must be handled properly, because toxic chemicals inside old batteries can lead to contamination of water and soil. As part of the recycling process, they are smelted to recover the lithium, cobalt, and nickel. However, this can be costly, so the repurposing of used batteries may be more cost-effective. Many EV batteries still have up to 70% of their capacity left, meaning they can be used for many other energy storage needs.?
Automakers are exploring ways to profit from used batteries. In Japan, Nissan has repurposed batteries to power streetlights. In Paris, Renault has batteries backing up elevators. In Michigan, GM is using repurposed batteries from Chevy Bolts to back up its data center. VW recently opened its electric car battery recycling plant in Germany that can recycle 3,600 battery systems per year. Repurposed EV batteries can also be useful for storing solar energy or running electric bikes and other tools. Finding new ways to turn these used batteries into productive solutions will benefit businesses, the environment, and consumers.
EV?Battery Maintenance
While your smartphone may be outdated in a few years, an EV is built to last for a good 15 years and the battery pack will last even longer. Think of your EV battery as a storage device for a huge amount of energy. It sends electricity to power the motor and accessories. Its maintenance is extremely important.
EV Charging
There are three ways to charge your EV. Level 1 charging allows you to plug your car into any standard 120-volt electric outlet (just like plugging in your toaster or blender). Level 1 charging takes about 12 hours to fully charge your electric car. Level 2 charging uses a 220-volt charger and outlet. Your home clothes dryer uses 220 current. A Level 2 charger can be installed by an electrician right in your garage and it will cut your charging time in half! Level 3 charging is also called DC Fast Charging and is available at public EV chargers for rapid charging. It uses 480-volt direct current, and you can get an 80 percent charge in about a half hour.
EV batteries do not require any special maintenance. In fact, they are generally maintenance-free. You will probably never even come into direct contact with your EV battery pack. In general, electric cars require less maintenance overall than a traditional gasoline-powered vehicle because there is no oil to change and nothing to tune up. The brakes even last longer because regenerative braking uses the electric motor to slow you down, saving wear on braking components.
However, how long your EV battery will last may depend on how you charge it over time. There are some do’s and don’ts. It all comes down to being responsible on how you use the battery.
EV Battery Maintenance Best Practices
It is best to never charge your EV battery over 80 percent. Charging happens in such a way as to put stress on the battery pack the closer you are to a 100 percent charge. Adding that final 20 percent will tax the battery. New EVs allow you to set a charging maximum to help you preserve battery life.
Likewise, never let your battery discharge all the way down to zero percent of charge. That is equally distressing to the battery and components. Most EVs have a “limp home mode” that will allow low speed driving to get you back to your home charger.
It is perfectly okay to use a DC Fast Charger when you are on a trip and want to recharge your EV in a half hour. But automakers suggest it is best not to use Level 3 charging on a daily basis. It is far better to charge your EV overnight while you’re sleeping and have a full tank of electricity the next morning by using Level 1 or Level 2 charging.
Electric Vehicle Batteries: Weather Worries
When it comes to the outside temperature, your EV likes it to be temperate, just like you do. If it is too hot or too cold outside, your EV’s battery will complain. Extended exposure to extreme temperatures will reduce how many miles you will get on a charge. In very cold weather, your car’s range may be reduced by as much as 40 percent! With that in mind, try to keep your car in the garage when possible, to avoid freezing or scalding temps.
Battery Degradation
You may have noticed that as your cellphone gets old, it tends to need to be charged more frequently. That is called “battery degradation.” Over the life of your electric car, the battery may degrade to a small degree but not enough to be replaced. It is normal to experience a five percent loss of range per 100,000 miles of travel.
The bottom line is to limit the time you use DC Fast Chargers, keep your vehicle at a moderate temperature to get the most out of your battery, and it is also a good idea to accelerate moderately. Being a lead foot can add stress to the components and reduce the life of your battery.
EV Battery Degradation and How to Prevent It
The battery pack in your all-electric vehicle is made to last the lifetime of the vehicle. However, EV batteries will slowly begin to lose the amount of energy they can store over time. This phenomenon is called “battery degradation” and can result in reduced energy capacity, range, power, and overall efficiency.
Unfortunately, battery degradation is not easy to predict. Not all brands perform the same, and every vehicle is different in how it is driven, charged and maintained. On the bright side, it’s not uncommon for modern EV batteries to last more than 10 years, and some will go well beyond that before needing to be replaced. The average electric car owner will sell their car long before they need to replace the battery pack.
It’s important to note that battery degradation has been known to worsen in a couple of scenarios:
As such, some automakers suggest limiting Level 3 DC Fast Charging (DCFC) and not making it a primary source of charge. For instance, Kia Motors suggests, “Frequent use of DC Fast Charging can negatively impact battery performance and durability, and Kia recommends minimizing use of DC Fast Charging.”
Environmental factors, such as continued exposure to extreme temperatures, will impact battery performance and may lead to degradation. In particular, batteries don’t perform very well when the temperature is below 20 degrees Fahrenheit. When it’s really cold and you’re using the car’s heater, your range can temporarily drop by as much as 40 percent.
To maintain a battery pack at peak performance, it is recommended to keep EVs charged to between 60 percent and 80 percent, minimize fast charging and avoid extreme temperatures over long periods of time.?
How Does Battery Degradation Happen?
Battery degradation doesn’t happen all at once. On average, electric car batteries lose only about one to two percent of their range per year depending on the factors discussed earlier. Fortunately, most batteries are designed for durability and will outlast the usable life of a vehicle.
If we look at Tesla battery degradation and Tesla S model battery, researchers have found that traveling 500,000 miles on the original battery should not be a problem. Just because the battery degrades does not mean it is not drivable; it simply loses some of its range and charging efficiency.
In blog posts, Tesla model S owners have noted that approximately 95 percent of the battery retains its battery function during the first 50,000 miles. A 5 percent battery degradation could equal 20 miles of range. Oddly enough, the battery only degraded another 5 percent during the next 100,000 miles. So, 150,000 miles of active driving only resulted in a total average of 10 percent total battery degradation. Typically, you wouldn’t need to consider replacing your battery until degradation reaches 50-65 percent.
There is also a time component to battery life — it degrades even if you don’t drive the car long distances. Hybrid batteries are designed to perform for at least 10 years. To cover any unexpected failure, time-based warranties are now standard in the industry. There is a federal mandate for warranties to cover eight years of hybrid car battery life, so most automakers offer warranties of eight years or more.
If you're faced with replacing a battery on an out-of-warranty car, there's no need to panic. The cost of a new battery pack continues to decline. Some technicians can even install an approved used battery pack salvaged from a wrecked vehicle, which would greatly reduce the potential repair cost.
How to Prevent Battery Degradation
It is predicted that EV battery life could be up to 500,000 miles. New electric vehicles cannot overcharge, over-discharge, or overheat thanks to safeguards that are in place. However, there are a number of steps you can take to help extend the life of?your EV battery.
·?Avoid Discharging Below 20 Percent: Making sure that you do not operate your EV below a 20 percent charge will add life to the battery and also make sure you always have plenty of charge to get you home.
·?Only Charge Up to 80 Percent: For most EV owners, the range of their EV is more than enough for daily commutes and errands and charging up to 80 percent is plenty for a day’s travel. A full charge to 100 percent is not good for lithium-ion batteries.? You can lower the maximum charging limit with your EV’s onboard charger.
·?Keep Your Car at the Right Temperature: Lithium-ion batteries are at their best within the same temperature range that is comfortable for humans. If it is too hot or too cold outside for you, it is likely not good for your EV. Park your car in the shade on hot days and in the garage when it is cold.
·?Don’t Be a Lead Foot: Moderate acceleration is key to extending battery life. Smooth, even acceleration will avoid depleting the battery.
·?Limit DC Fast Charging: It is much better to charge your EV at home overnight using Level 1 or Level 2 charging rather than utilizing a DC Fast Charger at a charging station in town. It avoids pushing so much electricity into the battery pack all at once. Using one of these DC Fast Chargers while on a trip is fine, just don’t make it a daily habit.
Types of Batteries Used in Electric Vehicles in India
India’s diverse driving conditions and mix of terrains demand the best in reliability, ruggedness, performance, and safety. To meet these demands, the types of batteries for electric vehicles currently proven to be the most suitable and viable as of the early 21st century are LFP (Lithium Ferro Phosphate) and NMC (Nickel Manganese Cobalt).?
Previously, we covered the different types of lithium-ion battery chemistries that make up modern contemporary lithium-ion battery technology. This addition of Battery Decoded aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the types of batteries used in Electric Vehicles in India and describe how these two electric vehicle battery chemistries manage to tick every single box that Indian consumers look out for.?
LFP vs NMC Types of Batteries: A Comparison
India’s diverse driving conditions and mix of terrains demand the best in reliability, ruggedness, performance, and safety. To meet these demands, the types of batteries for electric vehicles currently proven to be the most suitable and viable as of the early 21st century are LFP (Lithium Ferro Phosphate) and NMC (Nickel Manganese Cobalt).?
Previously, we covered the different types of lithium-ion battery chemistries that make up modern contemporary lithium-ion battery technology. This addition of Battery Decoded aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the types of batteries used in Electric Vehicles in India and describe how these two electric vehicle battery chemistries manage to tick every single box that Indian consumers look out for.?
LFP vs NMC Types of Batteries: A Comparison
?
As of the early 2020s, LFP and NMC are by far the two most predominant Li-ion battery chemistries used in Indian EVs. They have gained widespread popularity because of their low cost and high reliability. However, they also have some distinct advantages and disadvantages that make them suitable for different applications. Consequently, these pros and cons have led EV battery manufacturers to lean more toward either of the predominant chemistries with a different mix of elements. This has led to various EV companies using LFP batteries in affordable and base-level versions of their EVs while utilizing NMC batteries in top-end or ‘sport’ versions of their EVs.?
Reports suggest that EVs are less prone to catch fire compared to Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) vehicles, as well as hybrid vehicles.?
According to data published by the NTSB:
However, EV batteries or Li-ion batteries, due to their high energy density, may experience relatively more rapid and hard-to-control fires than ICE or hybrid vehicles. This is also why EV fire incidents have gained significant public attention while conventional vehicle fire incidents are relatively low-profile.
LFP Batteries
LFP batteries are preferred for their high number of life cycles, reliability, cost-effectiveness, and safety. These types of batteries are relatively more stable than NMC batteries and have a wider optimal temperature range than NMC batteries, between 0C and 45C (32°F and 113°F). LFP varieties and types of batteries can withstand more charge and discharge cycles without significant degradation of capacity. LFP varieties and types of batteries predominant in India’s EV ecosystem are also less prone to thermal runaway, which is a phenomenon where a battery overheats and catches fire. This is ideal when considering India’s high temperatures in various states.?
Thus, LFP batteries are more suitable for extreme climates and possess better safety features than NMC batteries. However, this disparity in safety between these two types of batteries is quickly being overcome with advances in Battery Management System (BMS) technology and other innovations in thermal runaway prevention and mitigation.
Some of the advantages of LFP batteries relative to NMC are:
Some of the disadvantages of LFP batteries relative to NMC are:
NMC Batteries
NMC batteries champion higher energy density, meaning that these electric vehicle batteries can pack more energy inside a smaller form factor. This allows them to deliver more power and range for EVs by reduced weight. These types of batteries are also more versatile and adaptable, as they can be customized to suit different applications by varying the ratio of nickel, manganese, and cobalt in the cathode. Globally, around 60% of EVs sold now contain NMC batteries.
Some of the advantages of NMC batteries relative to LFP are:
Some of the disadvantages of NMC batteries relative to LFP are:
Emerging Types of Batteries in the Indian EV Ecosystem
Other than LFP and NMC, there are a few emerging battery technologies that are gaining traction in India. Some of them are:
To Conclude
Various sources confirm the dominance of LFP and NMC types of batteries in the Indian electric vehicle market, but they may have slightly varied projections for the future market share of these different types of electric vehicle batteries.?
When EV batteries reach end-of-life in India, they are mandated by India’s Battery Waste Management Rules (BWMR 2022) to enter the battery recycling purposing stream, as part of Extended Producer Responsibility. Irrespective of the type of batteries; the size, form factor, or battery chemistry, LOHUM utilizes its proprietary NEETM? technology to recycle them all to produce raw materials that are even higher in purity and performance than the materials that originally went into the battery.
In other words, the NEETM? technology can recycle all the aforementioned types of batteries as it is fully chemistry-agnostic. This enables LOHUM to turn all types of Li-ion and electric vehicle batteries that have reached end-of-life, i.e. battery waste, into a source of sustainable secondary-ecosystem energy transition materials through recycling.?
The 6 Main Types Of Lithium Batteries
Lithium batteries are more popular today than ever before. You’ll find them in your cell phone, laptop computer, cordless power tools, and even electric vehicles. However, just because all of these electronics use lithium batteries doesn’t mean they use the same type of lithium batteries. We’ll take a closer look at the six main types of lithium batteries pros and cons, as well as the best applications for each.
What Is A Lithium Battery?
Lithium batteries rely on lithium ions to store energy by creating an electrical potential difference between the negative and positive poles of the battery. An insulating layer called a “separator” divides the two sides of the battery and blocks the electrons while still allowing the lithium ions to pass through.
During the charging phase, lithium ions move from the positive side of the battery to the negative side through the separator. While you discharge the battery, the ions move in the reverse direction.
This movement of lithium ions causes the electrical potential difference mentioned before. This electrical potential difference is called 'voltage' When you connect your electronics to a lithium battery, the electrons which are blocked by the separator are forced to pass through your device and power it.
The 6 Main Types Of Lithium Batteries
Different types of lithium batteries rely on unique active materials and chemical reactions to store energy. Each type of lithium battery has its benefits and drawbacks, along with its best-suited applications.
The different lithium battery types get their names from their active materials. For example, the first type we will look at is the lithium iron phosphate battery, also known as LiFePO4, based on the chemical symbols for the active materials. However, many people shorten the name further to simply LFP.
#1. Lithium Iron Phosphate
Lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries use phosphate as the cathode material and a graphitic carbon electrode as the anode. LFP batteries have a long life cycle with good thermal stability and electrochemical performance.
What Are They Used For:
LFP battery cells have a nominal voltage of 3.2 volts, so connecting four of them in series results in a 12.8-volt battery. This makes LFP batteries the most common type of lithium battery for replacing lead-acid deep-cycle batteries.
Benefits:
There are quite a few benefits to lithium iron phosphate batteries that make them one of the most popular options for applications requiring a large amount of power. The primary benefits, however, are durability, a long life cycle, and safety.
LFP batteries typically have a lifecycle rating of 2,000 cycles or more. Unlike lead-acid batteries, depth of discharge has a minimal impact on the lifespan of LFP batteries. Most LFP manufacturers rate their batteries at 80% depth of discharge, and some even allow 100% discharging without damaging the battery.
The materials used in lithium iron phosphate batteries offer low resistance, making them inherently safe and highly stable. The thermal runaway threshold is about 518 degrees Fahrenheit, making LFP batteries one of the safest lithium battery options, even when fully charged.
Drawbacks:
There are a few drawbacks to LFP batteries. The first is that compared to other lithium battery types, they have a relatively low specific energy. Their performance can also suffer in low temperatures. Combining the low specific energy and reduced performance in cold temperatures means LFP batteries may not be a great fit in some high cranking applications.
#2. Lithium Cobalt Oxide
Lithium cobalt oxide (LCO) batteries have high specific energy but low specific power. This means that they do not perform well in high-load applications, but they can deliver power over a long period.
What Are They Used For:
LCO batteries were common in small portable electronics such as mobile phones, tablets, laptops, and cameras. However, they are losing popularity to other types of lithium batteries due to the high cost of cobalt and concerns around safety.
Benefits:
The key benefit to LCO batteries is their high specific energy. This allows them to deliver power over a relatively long period under low-load applications.
Drawbacks:
LCO batteries have some significant drawbacks resulting in them becoming less popular in recent years. First, LCO batteries suffer from a relatively short lifespan, usually between 500-1,000 cycles. Additionally, cobalt is fairly expensive. Expensive batteries that don’t last a long time are not cost-effective.
LCO batteries also have low thermal stability, which leads to safety concerns. Furthermore, their low specific power limits the ability of LCO batteries to perform in high-load applications.
#3. Lithium Manganese Oxide
Lithium Manganese Oxide (LMO) batteries use lithium manganese oxide as the cathode material. This chemistry creates a three-dimensional structure that improves ion flow, lowers internal resistance, and increases current handling while improving thermal stability and safety.
What Are They Used For:
LMO batteries are commonly found in portable power tools, medical instruments, and some hybrid and electric vehicles.
Benefits:
LMO batteries charge quickly and offer high specific power. This means they can deliver higher current than LCO batteries, for example. They also offer better thermal stability than LCO batteries, meaning they can operate safely at higher temperatures.
One other benefit to LMO batteries is their flexibility. Tuning the internal chemistry allows LMO batteries to be optimized to handle high-load applications or long-life applications.
Drawbacks:
The main downside to LMO batteries is their short lifespan. Typically, LMO batteries will last 300-700 charge cycles, significantly fewer than other lithium battery types.
#4. Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide
Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) batteries combine the benefits of the three main elements used in the cathode: nickel, manganese, and cobalt. Nickel on its own has high specific energy but is not stable. Manganese is exceptionally stable but has a low specific energy. Combining them yields a stable chemistry with a high specific energy.
What They Are Used For:
Similar to LMO batteries, NMC batteries are popular in power tools as well as electronic powertrains for e-bike, scooters, and some electric vehicles.
Benefits:
The benefits of NMC batteries include high energy density and a longer lifecycle at a lower cost than cobalt-based batteries. They also have higher thermal stability than LCO batteries, making them safer overall.
Drawbacks:
The major drawback to NMC batteries is that they have a slightly lower voltage than cobalt-based batteries.
#5. Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminium Oxide
Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA) batteries offer high specific energy with decent specific power and a long lifecycle. This means they can deliver a relatively high amount of current for extended periods.
What They Are Used For:
The ability to perform in high-load applications with a long battery life makes NCA batteries popular in the electric vehicle market. Specifically, NCA is the battery of choice for Tesla.
Benefits:
The biggest benefits of NCA batteries are high energy and a decent lifespan.
Drawbacks:
With NCA technology, the batteries aren’t as safe as most other lithium technologies and are expensive in comparison.
#6. Lithium Titanate
All of the previous lithium battery types we have discussed are unique in the chemical makeup of the cathode material. Lithium titanate (LTO) batteries replace the graphite in the anode with lithium titanate and use LMO or NMC as the cathode chemistry.
The result is an extremely safe battery with a long lifespan that charges faster than any other lithium battery type.
What Are They Used For:
Many applications use LTO batteries. Electric vehicles and charging stations, uninterrupted power supplies, wind and solar energy storage, solar street lights, telecommunications systems, and aerospace and military equipment are just some of the use cases.
Benefits:
LTO batteries offer many benefits, including fast charging, an extremely wide operating temperature, a long lifespan, and superb safety because of their stability.
Drawbacks:
There are a couple of significant hurdles for LTO batteries to overcome. They offer low energy density, which means it stores a lower amount of energy relative to its weight when compared to some other lithium technologies. Additionally, they are very expensive.
Do All Types of Batteries Use Lithium?
No, not all batteries use lithium. Lithium batteries are relatively new and are becoming increasingly popular in replacing existing battery technologies.
One of the long-time standards in batteries, especially in motor vehicles, is lead-acid deep-cycle batteries. Lithium has quickly gained ground in this market in recent years, but lead-acid is still the primary choice in gas-powered motor vehicles due to the low upfront cost.
Additionally, the most common types of off-the-shelf batteries found in stores are alkaline batteries. Most of the AA and AAA batteries in use today are alkaline batteries that use zinc and manganese dioxide for the chemical reaction to store energy.
Before rechargeable lithium batteries gained popularity, most rechargeable batteries were nickel-cadmium (NiCad). NiCad batteries use nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrode materials. While not entirely obsolete yet, NiCad batteries are becoming less popular as lithium batteries take over the rechargeable battery market.
What’s The Most Common Type of Lithium Battery?
Lithium cobalt oxide (LCO) batteries are used in cell phones, laptops, tablets, digital cameras, and many other consumer-facing devices. It should be of no surprise then that they are the most common type of lithium battery.
Choose The Right Lithium Battery For Your Job
As you can see, there are many different types of lithium batteries. Each one has pros and cons and various specific applications they excel in. Your application, budget, safety tolerance, and power requirements will determine which lithium battery type is best for you.
.
5 New Battery Technologies That Will Change the Future
Your phone is about to go dead—again—and you can’t find a place to plug it in. Your laptop is getting hot…is the battery about to catch on fire? How far from home should you drive your electric vehicle? As scenarios like these become increasingly common, it’s clear that we need batteries that store more, last longer, and are safer to use. Fortunately, new battery technologies are coming our way.
Let’s take a look at a few:
?
1.???? NanoBolt lithium tungsten batteries?
Working on battery anode materials, researchers at N1 Technologies, Inc. added tungsten and carbon multi-layered nanotubes that bond to the copper anode substrate and build up a web-like nano structure. That forms a huge surface for more ions to attach to during recharge and discharge cycles. That makes recharging the NanoBolt lithium tungsten battery faster, and it also stores more energy.
Nanotubes are ready to be cut to size for use in any Lithium Battery design.
?
2.????? Zinc-manganese oxide batteries?
How does a battery actually work? Investigating conventional assumptions, a team based at DOE’s Pacific Northwest National Laboratory found an unexpected chemical conversion reaction in a zinc-manganese oxide battery. If that process can be controlled, it can increase energy density in conventional batteries without increasing cost. That makes the zinc-manganese oxide battery a possible alternative to lithium-ion and lead-acid batteries, especially for large-scale energy storage to support the nation’s electricity grid.
?3.???? Organosilicon electrolyte batteries
?A problem with lithium batteries is the danger of the electrolyte catching fire or exploding. Searching for something safer than the carbonate based solvent system in Li-ion batteries, University of Wisconson-Madison chemistry professors Robert Hamers and Robert West developed organosilicon (OS) liquid solvents. The resulting electrolytes can be engineered at the molecular level for industrial, military, and consumer Li-ion battery markets.
?4.???? Gold nanowire gel electrolyte batteries
?Also seeking a better electrolyte for lithium ion batteries, researchers at the University of California, Irvine experimented with gels, which are not as combustible as liquids. They tried coating gold nanowires with manganese dioxide, then covering them with electrolyte gel. While nanowires are usually too delicate to use in batteries, these had become resilient. When the researchers charged the resulting electrode, they discovered that it went through 200,000 cycles without losing its ability to hold a charge. That compares to 6,000 cycles in a conventional battery.
?
5.???? TankTwo String Cell? batteries
A barrier to the use of electric vehicles (EVs) is the slow recharging process. Seeking a way to turn hours into minutes, Tank Two looked at modularizing a battery. Their String Cell? battery contains a collection of small independent self-organizing cells. Each string cell consists of plastic enclosure, covered with a conductive material that allows it to quickly and easily form contacts with others. An internal processing unit controls the connections in the electrochemical cell. To facilitate quick charging of an EV, the little balls contained in the battery are sucked out and swapped for recharged cells at the service station. At the station, the cells can be recharged at off-peak hours.
?
?
For now, we may have to put up with phones going cold, laptops getting hot, and EVs not ranging far from home. Solutions seem to be on the horizon, however, so a better battery-powered future is within sight.
Different Types Of Batteries
Batteries nowadays are one of the most important components of electronic appliances and are used in almost every portable electronic device. From Drones to phones, and tablets to automobile EVs, one common electronic component you find is the battery.
The current battery market reached around USD 113.4 billion. This market keeps increasing with the development of EVs and the expansion of portable electronics and wearable electronic devices.
From a range of devices like Phones to EVS to drones to automobiles, the battery and type also differ and are based on use cases.
The first main classification of battery is on two types i.e. primary batteries and secondary batteries.
Primary Battery
Primary batteries are non-rechargeable disposable batteries. Once fully drained, primary cells can’t be recharged and you can say it’s a single-cycle battery. They consist of the chemical inside it that gets consumed with time and use and once it’s fully drained, you need to dispose of it.
Types of Primary Battery
Alkaline Batteries:
This type of battery drives the energy by a reaction of zinc metal and manganese oxide and we named it an alkaline battery because instead of using an acidic electrolyte, we use an alkaline electrolyte like potassium hydroxide (KOH).
Advantages:
Aluminum-Air Batteries:
This is the highest energy density battery and produces energy from the reaction of oxygen with aluminum. Once the aluminum is consumed and all aluminum gets reacted with air oxygen, we can’t use this battery further and we need to dispose of it after a single use.
Dry Cells:
This is another type of primary battery and most of us use it in our toys and TV remote control but these batteries are now getting replaced by alkaline batteries because of their high lifetime and energy density over the dry cells.
The dry cell is named after its electrolyte type as we use the dry electrolyte in it instead of liquid or wet electrolyte.
There are many other kinds of primary batteries as well but we mostly use mentioned above batteries.
There are the following other kinds of primary batteries or you can say disposable single-cycle batteries.
Secondary Battery
These kinds of batteries are multicycle batteries. We can recharge these batteries and use this kind of battery in many cycles of recharge. We mostly use these kinds of batteries in EVs, Phones, Automobiles, Portable gadgets, and in many different areas.
Based on environmental conditions and kind of need and use we further have different types of secondary batteries; some of the most popular secondary batteries that we use in most places are the Li-Ion battery, Li-Polymer Battery, and Lead Acid battery.
Types of Secondary Batteries
Li-Ion Batteries
This kind of battery uses Lithium metal so named Li-ion battery. These batteries are composed of cells and lithium ions from the negative electrode move to the positive electrode and when we charge, the ions move back to their place; this cycle occurs in each charging and discharging process.
The power density of Li-ion batteries is 126 Wh/Kg.
Li-Po Batteries
The Li-Po battery a.k.a. lithium polymer battery, we named polymer battery because it uses polymer electrolyte instead of liquid electrolyte. The high conductivity gel polymer form of electrolyte is used. These batteries carry high energy density compared to their weight.
These are mostly used in drones due to their lightweight and high density of energy. It has a Power density of 185 Wh/Kg.
Ni-MH Batteries
Ni-MH (nickel metal hydride) battery uses nickel oxide hydroxide and they are quite similar to Nickel cadmium NiCd batteries but here they use a hydrogen-absorbing alloy instead of cadmium and have a lower impact on the environment compared to others.
The power density of these batteries is 100 Wh/Kg.
Lead-acid Batteries
The lead acid battery has electrodes submerged in sulfuric acid electrolytes. These batteries are quite bulky and are mostly used in automobiles, UPS, Grid power stations, etc.
There are the following other kinds of secondary batteries-
Important Battery Characteristics
The amount of energy they can store is represented in Watt-hours (Wh)
The watt-hours (Wh) of a battery can be calculated by multiplying its nominal voltage (V), by the maximum current (Ah).
???????????????? Wh = rated voltage X Ah
Maximum current they can deliver (Discharge)
The amp-hour (Ah) is a value that the battery manufacturers will give us and we will find it printed on the label that all the batteries have attached to the container. To obtain this value, the manufacturer subjects the battery to a discharge test at a constant current, the time it takes to form a 100% charge to a 20% charge is what will determine the Ah.
For example, a battery with a capacity (C) of 300 Ah
Discharge time (standard) = 20 hours
Current (during test) = 15 A
We have to know how to interpret this value in Ah a little since it is only a reference value to classify batteries and given the case, and taking the battery from the previous example, it could not deliver 300 A for one hour.
This would mean accelerating the electrochemical reaction and as consequence, the internal resistance of the battery would increase, which would result in a drop in the output voltage.
If, on the other hand, we had a discharge current lower than that specified, for example, 10A, the Ah ration would be fulfilled. The 300 Ah battery in the example could sustain this value for 30 hours.
Current as a fractional value
Manufacturers also give a discharge current a fractional value of its capacity in Ah, these values can be C/10, C/20, C/50, C/100, etc., this value represents the number of hours of discharge that a battery can be delivering the specified current (Ah), with a constant flow of energy. In our example, C/30 would represent 10A and C/60 would be 5A.
It is advisable, in isolated installations, to buy a battery that would give us a capacity of C/100 with the consumption that we have or want to give to our installation. This way we would insure 3-4 days of electricity in case the weather conditions did not allow us to generate it.
Discharge depth
The depth of discharge is a percentage value (%), which represents the amount of energy that we can extract from the battery. To know this value, we must calculate the Watt-hours (Wh) of the battery, then based on the energy delivered, we determine the percentage (%).
For example, if the battery was 300 Ah and 12 V
12 V X 300 Ah = 3600 Wh
If 1800 Wh has been consumed the depth of discharge is 50% battery is self-discharged
Comparison Table of Secondary Batteries
Rechargeable batteries play an important role in our lives and many daily chores would be unthinkable without the ability to recharge. The most common rechargeable batteries are lead acid, NiCd, NiMH and Li-ion. Here is a brief summary of their characteristics.
Table 1 compares the characteristics of the four commonly used rechargeable battery systems, showing average performance ratings at time of publication. Li-ion is divided into different types, named by their active materials, which are cobalt, manganese, phosphate and titanate.
Missing from in the list is the popular lithium-ion-polymer that gets its name from the unique separator and electrolyte system. Most are a hybrid version that shares performance with other Li-ion. Also missing is the rechargeable lithium-metal, a battery that, once the safety issues are resolved, has the potential of becoming a battery choice with extraordinarily high specific energy and good specific power. The table only addresses portable batteries and excludes large systems that resemble a refinery.