Determinism and Crime: The Role of Genetics, Environment, and Upbringing in Criminal Acts

Criminal behavior has long been the subject of philosophical, legal, and scientific debate. One of the most contentious questions in criminology is whether crime is determined by factors beyond an individual’s control—such as genetics, environmental influences, and upbringing—or whether it is a matter of free will.

The concept of determinism in crime suggests that individuals do not commit criminal acts out of sheer choice but are instead influenced by biological predispositions, social conditioning, and circumstantial pressures. This perspective has profound implications for criminal law, forensic psychology, policing, and sentencing, as it challenges the traditional notion of individual responsibility that forms the foundation of most legal systems.

This article provides an extensive analysis of genetic, environmental, and developmental factors that contribute to criminality, explores key forensic and criminological studies, and examines the implications for justice systems worldwide.

1. Understanding Determinism in Criminology

Determinism refers to the belief that all events, including human actions, are caused by prior conditions and cannot occur otherwise. In the context of crime, determinism suggests that criminal acts are the result of biological, psychological, and environmental forces acting upon an individual, rather than deliberate, conscious choices.

There are three primary deterministic perspectives in criminology:

1. Biological Determinism – Crime is influenced by genetic and neurological factors, making some individuals more predisposed to criminal behavior.
2. Environmental Determinism – Crime arises due to sociocultural and economic conditions, shaping an individual’s opportunities and behavioral norms.
3. Psychological and Developmental Determinism – Crime is linked to early-life experiences, trauma, and learned behaviors, which mold a person’s decision-making processes.

Each of these perspectives plays a role in forensic investigations, criminal profiling, and sentencing considerations.

2. The Role of Genetics in Criminal Behavior

Modern forensic science has increasingly explored the relationship between genetics and crime, leading to heated debates about whether certain individuals are "born criminals."

2.1. The "Crime Gene" Debate: Is Criminality Inherited?

Decades of research in behavioral genetics suggest that criminal behavior has a hereditary component, but it is not determined solely by genetics.

• Twin and adoption studies indicate that criminal tendencies are more common in individuals with a family history of crime.
• Studies on monoamine oxidase A (MAOA)—often called the "warrior gene"—suggest that individuals with low MAOA activity may exhibit increased impulsivity, aggression, and violent tendencies, particularly when exposed to childhood abuse.
• Neurotransmitter imbalances (such as serotonin deficiencies) have been linked to poor impulse control and heightened aggression in certain individuals.

However, genetics alone do not predict criminality. Instead, genetic predispositions interact with environmental factors, shaping whether or not an individual actually engages in criminal acts.

2.2. Neuroscience and Criminal Behavior: The Brain’s Role in Determinism

Forensic neuroscience has demonstrated that structural and functional abnormalities in the brain can contribute to criminal behavior. Some key findings include:

• Frontal Lobe Dysfunction: Damage to the prefrontal cortex—responsible for impulse control and decision-making—has been observed in violent offenders and psychopaths.
• Amygdala Dysfunction: The amygdala regulates emotions like fear and aggression. Studies show that individuals with reduced amygdala volume tend to exhibit higher aggression and lower empathy levels.
• Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI): A significant number of prison inmates and serial offenders have a history of head trauma, leading to impaired emotional regulation and impulse control.

Brain imaging studies provide strong forensic evidence that neurological deficits can contribute to violent or antisocial behavior, reinforcing the idea that criminality is at least partially biologically determined.

3. Environmental Determinism: The Impact of Society and Circumstance

While genetic predispositions may play a role, environmental factors have a far stronger influence on actual criminal behavior. Individuals who grow up in high-risk environments are significantly more likely to engage in criminal acts.

3.1. Socioeconomic Factors and Crime

Economic hardship and social inequality are major contributors to crime. Criminological studies have consistently shown that:

• Poverty and Unemployment create conditions where individuals turn to crime for financial survival or status gain.
• Neighborhood Crime Rates influence youth behavior—if criminal activity is normalized, individuals are more likely to participate.
• Educational Disparities reduce access to legitimate career opportunities, increasing the appeal of criminal enterprises.

The Social Disorganization Theory posits that unstable communities with weak social institutions (schools, families, law enforcement) tend to produce higher crime rates due to lack of collective social control.

3.2. The Role of Peer Influence and Criminal Socialization

The people an individual associates with can significantly impact their likelihood of committing crimes.

• Differential Association Theory (Sutherland, 1939) states that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others.
• Gang Culture and Organized Crime operate through strict hierarchies and social reinforcement, rewarding criminal behavior with financial and social incentives.
• Childhood Exposure to Crime increases the likelihood of criminality—children who witness domestic violence, substance abuse, or parental criminal activity are more likely to engage in similar behavior.

3.3. Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) and Criminality

Psychological studies have established that individuals exposed to trauma, neglect, or abuse during childhood have a significantly higher risk of developing violent tendencies and antisocial behaviors.

• Childhood neglect disrupts normal emotional development, leading to detachment, lack of empathy, and impulsivity.
• Physical and emotional abuse increases aggression, normalizing violence as a conflict-resolution strategy.
• Parental substance abuse contributes to unstable home environments, reinforcing deviant behavior patterns.

These findings suggest that criminal behavior is often a consequence of early-life conditioning rather than a conscious moral failing.

4. The Legal and Forensic Implications of Determinism in Crime

The growing body of evidence supporting biological and environmental determinism challenges the traditional legal concept of culpability. If criminal behavior is largely influenced by genetic, neurological, and social factors, can individuals truly be held fully responsible for their actions?

4.1. The Role of Determinism in Criminal Defense

• Neurocriminology is increasingly used in courtrooms, with defense attorneys arguing that brain abnormalities reduce moral culpability.
• The concept of "diminished responsibility" acknowledges that individuals with severe neurological or psychiatric conditions may lack full criminal intent.
• Some courts have considered MAOA deficiency ("warrior gene") evidence in violent crime cases to argue for reduced sentencing.

4.2. Implications for Sentencing and Rehabilitation

• If criminal behavior is partially biologically determined, should rehabilitation focus on medical and psychological interventions rather than punishment?
• Can early intervention programs targeting high-risk youth reduce the likelihood of criminal development?
• Should forensic neuroscience influence sentencing policies, especially for juvenile offenders with proven neurological impairments?

These questions are shaping modern forensic psychology and criminal justice reform, influencing how society perceives and prosecutes crime.

Conclusion: Crime as an Interaction of Determinism and Free Will

While determinism offers compelling explanations for criminal behavior, it does not fully eliminate the role of individual choice. A more nuanced understanding suggests that crime is not caused by a single factor but by a complex interplay of genetics, environment, upbringing, and personal decisions.

Forensic science, criminal justice, and psychological research must continue to explore how deterministic influences shape behavior, ensuring that legal systems evolve to balance justice, rehabilitation, and social protection. Understanding crime through this lens is not about excusing criminal acts but about developing effective policies that address the root causes of criminality.