Decarbonising Human Settlements through Regional Planning, Peri- Urban Development & Ruralisation

Decarbonising Human Settlements?through Regional Planning, Peri- Urban Development &??Ruralisation

·??????Jit Kumar Gupta

Introduction

Cities remain integral part of human history. They have existed in the past. They shall continue to define, script and showcase?the unending and untold story of human origin, growth and development. Cities, as physical, economic and social systems in urban space, have emerged as centres of large concentration of population and activities in a limited area. Occupying merely 3% area, cities generate 60% of global wealth. Operating as principal centres of economy and polity, cities have enormous capacity to create large consumer markets. Housing highly trained workforce, cities remain most appropriate places with significant, social and economic achievements.?Landmark developments that define and distinguish the contemporary urban world includes; rapid growth of cities and towns in size, volume, contents, activities, numbers and spread; increasing proportion of urban population ; evolution of a distinct urban culture; making large contribution to economic growth and permitting industry and commerce to flourish; Cities are known to attract large skilled manpower and creating options for excellence and innovations besides offering optimum location for ?institutions, services and facilities. Despite having large population densities, cities offer opportunities and quality of life better than rural counterparts. In the process, urban centres have rapidly changed the spatial organization and economy besides impacting, both local and global environment.

Despite distinct advantages, cities are known for their positivities and negativities, dualities and contradictions. As storehouse of large number of physical, social and environmental problems, cities have emerged as places, where majority of urban residents lead a degraded life and where basic infrastructure services and amenities, essential for good human living, are eluding majority of urban residents. Poor governance, haphazard and unplanned growth?remain the prevalent pattern of urban development. Unplanned cities, remain repository of social ills, breeding grounds for poverty, exclusion of majority of people and areas of environmental degradation. Looking at the entire context of urban growth and development, urbanization in the developing world can be, primarily and essentially, called urbanization of population; urbanization of poverty, urbanization of pollution and exclusion. It is said, genesis of majority of the urban ills has its roots in the?neglect of?rural settlements and low priority they occupy in the national growth. It is rural poverty which is migrating to urban centres, leading to irrational growth of cities. Prevailing large unemployment, under-employment, disguised employment in rural areas has its genesis in the large dependence on agriculture;?prevailing low land-man ratio; small land holdings; outdated and unskilled agricultural practices; large dependence on rains and poor irrigation facilities; absence of?opportunities for gainful employment, low?prevailing skill and absence of rural industries;?lower level of literacy; poor connectivity; lack of basic infrastructure; poor education and healthcare facilities; disconnect with urban settlements, infrastructures, services and urban economy; inadequate marketing facilities of agricultural produce, presence of large number of middlemen and disconnect with national marketing systems; poor institutional capacity; highly stratifies society etc. Despite these critical limitations, rural settlements offer distinct advantages of rational growth and development by virtue of their limited population, size, limited needs of transportation/mobility/accessibility; availability of large natural resources; providers of raw material for industries; sustainer of basic amenities and services; close proximity to nature, small carbon footprints and large manpower resource. Villages, in addition, also hold enormous capacity and capability to support their urban counterparts by reducing problems of uncontrolled, haphazard and unplanned growth/expansion; lower traffic and??transportation , services, infrastructure, slums, energy; land and shelter, by reduced migration. In the given context, it will be appropriate that all developing countries, which have large rural settlements and population living in rural areas, should explore the options/opportunities offered by rural settlements to make the urbanization process more rational and sustainable. In fact, ruralisation and urbanization processes should be integrated for promoting synergies and to create a sustainable settlement model/structure at the local, metropolitan, regional and national levels to rationalize the urban growth and reduce the carbon footprints of human settlements.

Indian Urbanization

With 378 million persons (2011, census) residing in 53 metros/7935 urban centres, India has emerged as the second largest urban system in the world after China, despite level of urbanization placed at 31.1%. Looking at the Indian context of urbanization it is, primarily and essentially, characterized by its massiveness, poverty and pollution besides dualities and contradictions. Despite the fact that level of urbanization merely stood at 31.11% in 2011, number of urban dwellers were placed at 378 million. For the first time in the demographic history, Urban India added more population (91 million) as compared to Rural India (90 million), during the last decade (2001-11), putting India on the fast trajectory of urbanization. In addition, Urban India added large number of centres, with their count going up from 5161 (2001) to 7933(2011), recording an increase of more than 52%. Number of metropolitan centres also increased rapidly from 35 to 53 during the last decade, indicating concentration of urban population in large ?urban centres, holding more than 42% of urban population.

During last 11 decades (1901-2011), urban population has multiplied 15 times from 25.8 to 377.1 million with urbanization level going up merely three times- from 10.84 to 31.15%, whereas number of urban centres grew 4 times from 1917 to 7935. Considering the massive differential between urban and rural growth rate (2.1% against 0.7%), it is estimated that number of urban dwellers will share parity with rural population by 2050. Next three decades are likely to witness enormous growth in terms of numbers of urban centres, their size and population. It is estimated that by 2050 number of Metro Cities will go beyond 100 and 10 million plus cities will be 9 with Kolkata, Mumbai and Delhi occupying distinct places and rating among the largest urban centres at the global level. In this context, urban centres are likely to emerge as major settlements, housing large proportion of Indian population. As per UN, urban India, which housed 11% global urban population in 2015, will be home to 13% of global population in 2030.Urban India, besides housing large population?concentrated in a limited area, makes sizeable contribution to the national economy which was placed at 60% in 2011 and is expected to go up to 75% in the year 2050.

Urbanization and Global Warming

Cities are known to be large consumers of energy and resources besides generators of waste. Accordingly, they are known to have large carbon footprints and are closely associated with climate change. Under the impact of rapid climate change, the average global temperature has increased at the fastest rate in recorded history. Trends are accelerating, due to rapid urbanization during the last 50 years. All but one of the 16 hottest years in NASA’s 134-year recorded history, have occurred since 2000 .Antarctica has been losing about 134 billion metric tons of ice per year since 2002. This rate could speed up if we keep burning fossil fuels at our current pace, ?causing sea levels to rise several meters over the next 50 to 150 years.

Urbanization, scholars contend, is an essential condition for growth and poverty reduction. Urbanization produces economies, knowledge and innovations, which contribute to economic growth and reduction in poverty levels. While urban centres act as the generators of economic growth and rapid pace of urbanization, they are also known to create undue pressure on the existing natural resources. Cities are more dependent on energy than rural areas and create considerable number of ecological footprints. Accelerated urbanization creates demand for mass transportation, increase in commercial and industrial activities and pressure to use the vacant urban land. These activities are often undertaken at the cost of natural landscape, water bodies, increased energy consumption, etc., creating severe damages to the quality of air, water and other natural resources. Along with these, climate change makes human settlements more susceptible to natural disasters, especially for the economically weaker sections of society, who are more often exposed to and are adversely impacted by vagaries of extreme weather conditions. For any city, the scale of damage is directly connected to rate of urbanization, demand for utilization of natural resources and imbalance between environment and development.

UN Habitat Report states, ‘The effects of urbanization and climate change are converging in dangerous ways. Cities are major contributors to climate change: although they cover less than 3per cent of the earth’s surface, cities consume 78 per cent of the world’s energy and produce more than 60% of all carbon dioxide and significant amounts of other greenhouse gas emissions, mainly through energy generation, vehicles, industry, and biomass use”. InterHYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change"-HYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change"governmental Panel on Climate Change ?(IPCC)?Fifth Assessment Report , 2013 also?concluded that "It is?extremely likely?that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid-20th century." As cities are known to be the major cause of climate change, they are also going to be?major casualty of the adverse impacts of such a change. The adverse climate change impacts have been enumerated in terms of: ?global warming , rising temperature, rapid melting of snow, rising sea levels and the?abandonment of populated coastal areas ; droughts , threat to?food security ?from decreasing crop yields; heavy?rainfall ?with?floods ?and heavy?snowfallHYPERLINK "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow"; ocean?acidification and?extinction of certain species?,due to shifting temperature regimes and expansion of deserts.

Climate change has been found to have local footprints with global impacts. So, what is happening at the local level is getting accumulated at the national and the global level. Contributions made by different countries to global warming have been found to be at variance closely connected with the pattern of urbanization, urban planning and urban development; energy consumption pattern and systems of energy production; level of development and economy; population growth; pattern of traffic & transportation etc. Among nations which are major contributors to global warming pollution, China has highest ranking producing about?28 percent ?of global CO2 emissions. The United States ranks next, despite making up just 4 per cent of the world’s population, producing 16 per cent of all global CO2?emissions—as much as the European Union and India (third and fourth place) combined. In USA, burning of fossil fuels used for making electricity is the largest source of heat-trapping pollution, producing about two billion tons of CO2 every year. Coal-burning power plants are by far the biggest polluters followed by the transportation sector, which generates about 1.7 billion tons of CO2 emissions a year.Parties to the UNFCCC have agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required?and that global warming should be limited to well below 2.0°C (3.6°F) compared to pre-industrial levels?with efforts made to limit warming to 1.5°C (2.7°F). Recently concluded COP 26 (November,2021) recently held that the temperature rise has to be limited to 1.5°C (2.7°F). and not 2.0°C (3.6°F), as thought earlier. ?

?Looking at the above context, it becomes critical that there is an urgent need to link climate change to local environmental and other developmental priorities pursued by nations. As pattern of sources of energy generation remain most critical elements of global warming, it will be appropriate that strategies that make certain alternative sources of energy more attractive to users than fossil fuels, need to be put in place. In addition, since urbanization is known to be?closely associated with global warming, accordingly new pattern of urban planning and development has to be evolved and put in operation, which should include;?better planned city with reduced urban sprawl;?making cities compact ; designing greener buildings, making?public transport green?for reducing?city’s carbon footprint?and??providing?better quality of life to its citizens with a clean environment. Putting in place effective and efficient options of promoting ruralisation, through planned and rational development of villages, to make them self- contained and self-sufficient in shelter, economy, infrastructure, services, employment, day-to-day needs and linking rural and urban economy/development, is likely to usher an era of global and local sustainability besides making urban settlements and urbanization more sustainable and rational.

Stand Alone Goal on Cities — Goal 11 “Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.”

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development has also given a prominent role to urbanization and cities with the inclusion of a stand-alone goal for cities and human settlements. This comes as a recognition ?of the fact that cities are a string, that connects all other goals together with their density and economies of agglomeration ?linking ?economy, energy, environment, science, technology. social and economic outputs.

Redefining Planning

Promoting sustainable cities with lower carbon footprints, would require a new order of urban planning, considering the contours and complexity of such a city. New order of planning would involve making planning people centric, transparent, community oriented, resource/energy efficient, sustainable and flexible. Its focus shall be to minimize prevailing urban dualities and contradictions and to promote development based on equity, inclusiveness and providing opportunities to all. Master Plans, which have been used by planners as the panacea to overcome all the urban ills, will have to be revisited, reviewed redrawn and redefined, with appropriate innovations/changes made in the intent, contents and scope of such plans. New order of Master Plans will not be merely land-use plans, defining/freezing the city future once for all for next two decades, indicating the use of every parcel of land in the city. It will take a ‘whole city’ holistic approach to planning and focus on the urban form, shape and typology of cities. Since cities are dynamic entities, ever changing, ever shaping, ever evolving and devolving, they will require plans which would provide inbuilt flexibility to cater to ever changing urban dynamism. The master plans would accordingly be dynamic in nature, growing and evolving with the growth of towns. New breed of Master Plans would be based on state of art technologies and a distinct vision, evolved after detailed study, analysis and understanding of the city fabric and its growth potential, duly supported by detailed planning and development guidelines. The vision shall be achieved through well-defined missions for different facets of a given city involving planning and development. Each development project for the city, shall be evaluated in the context of defined vision and guidelines, by a multi-disciplinary team of experts comprising of stakeholders, before accepting any option/proposal for development. The city planning shall not be dictated exclusively by planners but will involve a larger set of experts representing different shades of city planning, growth and management to rationalize decision making. Architects, urban designers, landscape experts, service providers, environmentalists, transport experts, conservationists, art and culture historians, heritage experts’ sociologists etc. will have major role ?to play in planning ?safe, livable and sustainable cities.

Globally, efforts are being made, by different nations, to rationalize urbanization and to plan cities based on the new order. To achieve the objective of sustainability and for ensuring appropriate quality of life to residents on a sustained basis, planning?of Tianjin city in China, a joint effort of China and Singapore governments, reckoned to be the most energy efficient and sustainable city-in-making, is based on 22 quantitative and 4 qualitative Key Performance Indicators (KPIs), which define the development standards for the city include; amenities, services, air-quality, environment, ecology, noise, carbon emissions, wetlands, buildings, plantation, green spaces, mobility, energy, traffic and transportation, accessibility, housing and employment following the system of TOD, mixed land use, energy efficiency, green buildings and green transportation. Masdar city near Dubai is also being?developed to be zero carbon, zero car and zero waste city. Considering Tianjin and Masdar, as role models, cities need to be planned as a combination of three harmonies involving; social harmony, economic vibrancy and environmental sustainability to make them eco-friendly and mitigators of global warming of human settlements besides minimizing carbon footprints of the cities.

Regional Planning

In addition, to looking inward,?new regime of urban planning ?wants cities to ?look outward so as to link the city with its surrounding areas/settlements. No city on planet earth exists in a spatial vacuum /isolation. Every city has its periphery/area of influence to support it. This zone of influence varies with the size, location, primacy, accessibility, population, nature of specialization, administrative status, amenities, services etc., of the mother city. The existing pattern of urban planning ignores the critical role and importance of periphery in sustaining/rationalizing the city growth and development. In order to minimise prevailing urban ills, new regime of urban planning should invariably include an approach, which would involve looking at the cities, both inward and outward

Globally, most efficient cities in the world have adopted Regional perspective and not merely looking at city’s growth. The Regional approach/model has helped them in promoting co-operation and collaboration; minimizing local competition and conflicts, over/under investment in infrastructure, infrastructure optimization between neighboring cities/rural settlements; determining the?location of strategic facilities, optimization of resources ,?preventing disasters,?promoting and protecting ecology and bio-diversity, providing recreational activities and overcoming confusion over role and responsibilities of various agencies. In the process, Regional Planning has promoted higher order of co-operation and growth, of not only the city but also the rural settlements and the region.?Balancing the economic and environmental aspirations of the wider area at the regional level, urban planning has to partner the regional and metropolitan plans to promote sustainability. Looking ‘outward’ can also help in achieving the objectives of integration and decentralized planning, enshrined in the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992, which calls for integrated development of urban and rural settlements through the mechanism of preparing District Development Plans at the District level and Metropolitan Area Plans for the Metro Regions. Regional Planning looks at optimizing of the regional resources by promoting synergies between rural and urban areas and connecting them through a well-defined settlement hierarchy, based on the developmental potential of each settlement, for making them more sustainable with least consumption of resources and energy. Regional planning is known to promote balanced development of urban and rural areas through rational distribution of resources, population, economic activities, services, industries, generating employment, economy and rational spread of services and amenities. Scheme launched?by Government of india,for the development of 117 identified ‘Aspirational Districts’( backward districts of the country), could also be taken up, ?conceptualized, formulated and implemented on the analogy of Regional Planning with District taken as a Region. This will help large number of neglected villages to be developed using the available resources in the district based on equity and sustainability.

Realization

If India, as a nation, has the distinction of being the second largest global urban system, it also holds the same rank among nations globally, in the count of rural settlements(0.64million) after China (One million villages). Rural settlements remain critical for the rational growth and development of India with 6,38,596 villages holding 69.9% of 1.21 billion population (2011 Census); providing basic essentials for human survival; making fair contribution to national economy; sustaining large chunk of employment; holding a large reservoir of manpower and providing raw material for industries. Villages shall continue to dominate the Indian scenario in terms of population, food and promoting industry using agricultural produce as their basic input. Despite distinct advantages, rural areas are fast losing to urban counterpart, primarily due to improved agricultural technologies, ever changing industrial technology and desire to improve their economic status, which is leading to exodus of large rural population to urban areas.

Looking at the entire developmental context, it can be seen that most of the urban problems have their genesis in the neglect of the rural areas because Rural-Urban migration constituted more than 21 per cent of the urban population growth in India (Census 2011). Growth of slums in Urban India, has its genesis and roots in rural poverty migrating to urban areas. In India, cities can never become sustainable, rational, and orderly or slum free, unless rational and planned development of villages is put on a fast track. Thus, it becomes critical that rural areas are properly planned, rationally developed and objectively managed. Mahatma Gandhi, father of the nation, had categorically stated and emphasized the role and importance of villages in the context of national development. Mahatma Gandhi ?said ‘India lives in villages, if villages prosper India will prosper and if villages perish India will perish too’.?

In addition to,?rationalizing?the development of urban India, Rural settlements also hold the key to reduce the carbon footprints and promoting sustainable development of urban areas, because of their small size; lesser population; compact development; less transportation needs; lower energy and resource consumption. Villages live, work and grow with nature, using natural resources, thereby causing minimum damage to air, water, environment and ecology. The distinct advantages offered by villages must be leveraged to minimize the climate change and??reducing ill effects of urbanization. This would require a new approach and policy framework to be put in place providing dedicated support to development of villages through creating synergy between urban and rural settlements. This also calls for connecting all villages, with adjoining urban settlements in order to have access to urban infrastructure by eliminating the existing disconnect between cities and villages. Where not feasible, large villages should be identified as growth centres, where urban amenities could be provided for the benefit of adjoining ?group of smaller villages, by adopting a cluster approach. India has 4,681 villages with more than 10,000 population and 14,799 villages with population of more than ?5000 (Census2001). These large populated villages can be taken up for development and provision of infrastructure on the pattern of urban areas in terms of healthcare, education, mandies and institutions catering to social, economic and physical aspects of human living.

?Former?President of India, Late Abdul Kalam Azad, also gave the concept of PURA ( Providing Urban Amenities in Rural Areas) to make rural area grow and prosper, following the pattern of?urban settlements. The services provided in the central village can be used by population residing in the surrounding villages on shared basis. For the sustainable development of villages , Government of India has also come out with the cluster approach ( Shyama Prasad Mukerji RuUban Mission); which provides for identifying clusters of villages, falling in?a radius of 5-10 kms, having a total?population of 50,000(in case of plains) and 25,000( in case of hilly and difficult terrains), identifying a central village for making provision of all the ?defined and specified basic amenities and services, linking the central village with all surrounding villages for cluster of villages ?to work in tandem and grow collectively and jointly, by having access to all basic services and amenities. Government of India has initially identified 300 clusters to start it. The cluster approach needs adoption and replication pan India, to?ensure the rational growth and development of Rural India. In addition, all?villages falling in the ?urban/peri-urban areas, should be planned and developed, as?integral part of the planning and development of ?towns/cities, of which they form the part.

?Considering large number of existing villages numbering over 0.638 million, India needs to prioritize rural development in order to reduce migration, rationalize the urbanization and reduce global warming. Strategy of rural development must give preference to states having low urbanization; large number of villages ;high poverty rate; large unemployment and maximum share in national rural-urban migration. States of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Orissa, with more than half of total villages in India and having ?large share in out-migration, needs to be taken up for development, in the first stage to reduce migration and make urban centres more rational. In addition to adopting state centric and cluster approach, villages at individual level have to be planned and developed??to make them self-sufficient, sustainable and independent economic entities in terms of generating employment, making provision of basic infrastructure, services and meeting?their day-to-day needs .Every village should be provided with potable water supply, sanitation, shelter and?basic infrastructure to take care of their healthcare and education. Agro-based rural industries should be promoted on large scale, to make value addition to agricultural produce besides connecting villages with the formal marketing system to receive optimum returns of the agricultural produce by eliminating middle men. Skill development and technology centres should be created for skilling available ?manpower, generate employment and improve the quality and capacity of the rural manpower. All village internal roads should be paved with appropriate drainage provided. Houses need to be planned and designed to have good air, light and ventilation through the construction of model housing, using local materials and improved local technologies. Animals should be separated from human living and placed outside the human habitation area, for their care by creating milk co-operatives for generating resources and employment. All village activities should be managed through a co-operative system with employment, income and resources provided to all and shared on equitable basis. Villages should be made to generate their own electricity through renewable sources and bio- mass available locally to meet their day- to-day needs of power for agriculture, lighting and cooking. Village ponds should be protected and developed to preserve the source of water and promote recreational activities. Villages should create community centres for holding public functions, promoting community deliberations, creating awareness, promoting innovations, generating new ideas , innovating and evolving new technologies. Technical institutions ?and corporate sector should be actively involved in ?empowering local citizens and creating skilled manpower for promoting the planned development of rural areas. Such an approach would make villages and ruralisation an effective tool to mitigate the global warming and promote sustainable development.

Looking at the context of land-man ratio, India has merely ?2.4%?of global land ?and 17.3% ?of global population to hold and feed. India remains most land stressed nation in the world. Accordingly, ?India needs to preserve, conserve and optimize the land resource. Best option available for Rural India to adopt the culture of co-operative living and working, involving agriculture, marketing ?etc. if Indian villages/villagers are to have ?distinct quality of life,?gainful employment for all and?higher productivity. Physically and technological led connectivity ?will offer the?major trigger for rural growth and development , to bring synergy in rural and urban areas. Government of India has already launched number of mission and yojnas in rural India on the analogy of urban areas , focusing on housing, roads, skill development, sanitation, water supply etc, for providing basic amenities and to make vallagers technology literate, ?which if implemented logically and rationally, can bring drastic change in the development trajectory of Rural India.

Peri-Urban Area??????

Looking historically, human beings did not start life as urban creatures. If finding food, security and a settled life were the major factors for establishing villages, then learning, innovation, sophistication, trade and commerce became the major drivers of creating urban centers.?City development has been found to be positively co-related and synonymous with human development. With cities emerging as centers of exchange, both of goods and ideas, they became centre of excellence, innovations and learning, attracting large number of people in the process. Over the years with the growth in population, city also grew in physical terms and size to accommodate large population and to provide for their housing and other support infrastructure and services. Despite?rapid growth of cities and towns?in the post-independence period, limits and boundaries of the cities?officially continued to be static. Urban limits were defined by the parastatal agencies under the municipal law without reference to the, existing and future ?pattern of?growth and development of?the urban settlement. With political factors largely governing the definition of urban boundaries, the process remained slow and static. In large number of cases ,the urban limits remained static, even over a period?of 15-20 years, despite the fact that during this period, urban center increased by more than 30-50%, in terms of population and physical size. Accordingly, most of the new development continued to occur in the area outside the defined municipal boundaries, which had become highly potential.

?Factors which?leveraged?large growth taking place outside urban limits were; limited options available within the existing limits of urban centres, slow pace of development of urban land, legal restrictions on land development within urban centres, locational advantage, lesser restrictions on peri-urban land, absence of regulatory authority, lower land values and easy accessibility to the urban infrastructure and work centers. In the process, the growth and development of areas outside the urban limits assumed importance and became synonymous with the growth and development of the mother city. In fact, in certain cases the momentum of growth outside urban limits has been found to be of higher order due to numerous factors constraining the development within the city. According to one of the studies ?made of Bhopal metropolis, it has been revealed that the share of various parts of the city had shown distinct characteristics. As the city grew outwards, the share of old part reduced drastically from 70% during 1970 to 40% in 2001.?Major gainers of the population have been found to be areas on the periphery, within & outside the planning boundary and the peri-urban areas.???????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????????Accordingly, the development in the periphery of the urban areas assumes importance, for proper regulation in order to rationalize the planned growth of the urban centres, of which peri-urban areas form an integral part. Unfortunately, in India, in majority of the cases , peripheral areas are not being subjected to strict legal controls, despite the fact that these areas are witnessing rapid transformation. Considering the role and importance of the peri-urban areas, it becomes critical that development of these areas is objectively looked into and appropriate strategies are evolved to make them integral part of the city growth and developmental process. Such an approach would help in making urban areas more sustainable, livable and productive.

Defining?Peri-Urban Areas

In the Indian context, peri-urban areas have not been duly recognized in terms of their role and importance in rationalizing and promoting the planned growth of urban centers and making cities more humane, more productive and more sustainable. These areas have been left largely to be exploited by the speculators, real-estate developers and builders, to create structures and sub-divide the land against all planning and developmental norms. However, in all developed countries,?peri-urban areas are strictly regulated in terms of their definition and parameters of planning and development.?Peri-urban area has been defined:

As an area around an urban settlement which is distinctive in character having diverse and mixed land uses and residents. These are the areas generally located outside the municipal limits.

?In U.S.A. Peri-Urban area,?in the state of Houston, is defined on the basis of numerous inter-linked factors which include population density, employment in non-agricultural uses, industries and population mobility.

As those areas, which are in some form of transition from strictly rural to urban. These areas form the immediate urban-rural interface and may even fully evolve into being fully urban. Peri-urban are places where people are key components. The majority are on the fringe of established urban areas but they may also be clusters of residential development within rural landscape.

In the Indian scenario, efforts have been made to define?the extent of the peri-urban areas. First attempt was made in the case of new capital city of Chandigarh, where initially?8 km. stretch outside the project area was defined as “Periphery” in order to regulate the growth and development outside the limits of the new city, The objective was to put a check on the haphazard, unplanned and sub-standard growth besides making available land, free from all encumbrances, for future growth and expansion of the new city. The extent of periphery was subsequently increased to 16 kms, considering the pressure of development around the capital city. Periphery of Chandigarh was defined under the provisions of, ‘The Punjab New?Capital.(Periphery) Control Act, 1952.

State of Punjab has also been pioneer in recognizing the role and importance of peri-urban areas in the context of planned urban development.?In 1963, a legal framework, “The Punjab Scheduled Roads and Controlled Areas Restrictions on Unregulated Development Act”, was put in place. The Act, inter-alia?provided for declaring area up to 8 kms around any city/town,?and 2 kms around any building of historical and architectural importance or any important institution, as Controlled area, which would be subjected to distinct controls, rules and regulations evolved under a Development Plan prepared under the Act. It also provided for regulating development along all important roads and bye-passes listed in the Act in order to rationalize the peri-urban growth along these roads, within and outside the municipal limits. The stretch proposed to be regulated varied from 30 meters along Scheduled Roads to 100 meters in case of Bye-passes.

State of Haryana has also attempted to define peri-urban areas under the Punjab Scheduled Roads Act and the Haryana Urban Areas, Act 1975.Under the Haryana Urban Areas Act, 5 km stretch outside the municipal limits and institutions could be declared as urban areas. Such areas are subjected to strict developmental controls defined in the Development Plan. Haryana model of development focuses on the need and importance of the rational and planned development of the peri-urban areas whereas development of core urban areas/mother city is left to the municipal law where no provision exists for the preparation of the Development Plan. This model is based on the premise of using the potential of peri-urban areas which have little development but offer enormous options to acquire cheaper land and promote urban development on a massive scale by creating large residential, commercial colonies and townships.

In all the above cases, distinct variations have been observed in the extent of Peri-Urban areas. In the case of Chandigarh, it is observed that the Punjab New Capital (Periphery) Control Act, 1952 does not specify any limit of such area. It was perhaps the vision of the first Capital Project Team, which included eminent Architects, Planners, Administrators and Engineers, who considered prudent that 8 km. would be sufficient to regulate the development around the new city. However, no study was carried out while defining the extent of the periphery of the city. Stipulations made in the “The Punjab Scheduled Roads and Controlled Areas (Unregulated) Development Act,1963 with regard to defining the extent of peri-urban areas, seem to have been largely influenced by pattern followed in Chandigarh. Haryana Urban Areas Act defines, 5 km as the extent of peri-urban areas against 8 kms. specified in the Chandigarh law. However, in all these cases, objective and well defined criteria to determine peri-urban areas are absent.?Accordingly, considering the large implications of the peri-urban areas, it becomes critical that the extent of such areas should be properly delineated based on well-defined parameters. It would not be appropriate to limit the extent of peri-urban areas by defining it in the law itself because the extent of the peri-urban areas would vary with individual settlement. Accordingly, it will be more rational and appropriate, if instead of fixing the extent of area, proper methodology and objective criterion are laid down in the law, based on which the extent of Peri-Urban area should be defined.?

Development Issues

?Peri-urban areas because of their close proximity to the mother city, are subjected to numerous development forces which result in changing their basic rural character. Due to absence of any regulatory authority, the development in the area is subjected to whims and fancies of the individuals. In the absence of any planning framework, most of the development is haphazard and unplanned. The area suffers??from lack or ???????????absence of basic infrastructure and services despite the fact, it houses large number of people, institutions and work centres. The extent of the peri-urban areas has been found to have positive co-relation with the size of the mother city ie larger the city, larger would be the extent of peri-urban limits. In addition to the development outside the municipal boundaries, area along major road network also witnesses linear/ribbon/corridor pattern of development.?Thus peri-urban areas have features which are distinct from those of urban and rural areas. It has development which is not compact and contiguous. Development to a large extent is interspersed with agricultural pockets.

In the Indian context peri-urban areas, which are on a massive roll today, are being subjected to large developmental forces and pressures.?Infact they are the areas which are going to become urban over a period of time, when municipal limits are extended.?They would be required to be provided with appropriate level of planning and developmental input to integrate them with the existing framework of the city and its services. Considering the pattern of development existing in the peri-urban areas, process becomes highly cumbersome and problematic and poses numerous challenges and problems of integration with the result, these areas continue to be neglected and suffer for considerable time. To minimize such eventualities, it becomes critical that peri-urban?areas are clearly identified for each settlement and adequately?looked after by a properly defined development authority within a ?pre-defined planning framework so that their integration with the city does not pose any problem subsequently.

Peri- urban areas have been found to have significant ecological, bio-diversity, land form, natural character, landscape and cultural/ natural heritage values. For preserving these valuable gifts, it becomes all the more important that these areas are rationally and thoughtfully studied and planned with sensitivity. Since peri-urban development has serious repercussion for the mother city, it becomes all the more critical that a proper legal framework is put in place ,on priority, to effectively and efficiently manage the growth and development of such areas.

As per the report of the New Zealand Parliamentary Commissioner , environmental management and planning framework surrounding peri-urban areas is complex process due to?large number of agencies with varied range of functions involved in their management The investigation critically looks into the approaches adopted for environmental planning and management and?effectiveness of the planning processes . The investigation highlights a range of issues that seem to be compromising the effectiveness of the environmental planning and management processes in the peri-urban areas, in terms of:

? Limited capacity of the planning processes to identify and manage tensions and conflicts.

?? Poor leadership from national agencies on how to manage these areas.

? Inconsistent local vision and leadership has at times resulted in litigation.

? Variable institutional capacity to promote the sustainable development of the peri-urban???areas, both intellectual and financial.

?Relying on the district plans as the primary tool for managing the sustainability of peri-urban areas

?Weak accountability in the system

? Poor quality of baseline resource information

? Absence of major issues in the debates around the future development of peri-urban areas.

? Low capability to define and manage cumulative effects.

? Poor monitoring of implementation and environmental outcomes.

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SWOT Analysis;

With a view to critically evaluate and understand the entire gamut of Peri-urban areas in terms of its strength and weaknesses, opportunities offered and threats posed for the planned development of urban areas, SWOT analysis has been carried out. The analysis would help in evolving future growth strategies for urban areas based on making optimum use of its strength, overcoming weaknesses, making best use of the opportunities offered and minimizing the threat posed by the unplanned and haphazard development of Peri-Urban areas.

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Strength:

Strength of the Peri-Urban areas can be defined in terms of:

·??????High growth potential for urban and industrial development.

·??????Existence of developmental triggers like large industrial/institutional units, major road/rail network.

·??????Existence of large number of godowns &?wholesale markets.

·??????Existence of inefficient land market and inadequate supply of serviced??land within the mother city.

·??????Prevailing high land prices within the core area.?

·??????Existence of restricting legal framework, and irrational Development Control Regulations operating within the mother city.

·??????Better options for cheaper, spacious and affordable housing.

·??????Simpler and liberal?process of approvals for development,?conversion of land use and grant of building permissions.

·??????Easier availability of large quantum of land at cheaper rates.

·??????Easy accessibility to the mother city including its specialized infrastructure and services.

·??????Close proximity to work centers and centers of employment.

·??????Comparatively low cost of living.

·??????Absence of any toll, taxes, levies, fees etc.

·??????Availability of basic amenities and services at comparatively lower price.

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Weaknesses:

Major weaknesses of the Peri-urban areas can be defined in terms of :

·??????General absence of a well-defined legal framework for planning, development & management.

·??????Absence?of planning and developmental agencies to regulate development within the area.

·??????Absence of well-defined planning framework to guide, rationalize and promote orderly growth of the area.

·??????Large scale conversion of agricultural land into non-agricultural uses due to easy procedures/absence of any legal framework.

·??????Unauthorized and haphazard sub-division of agricultural land into small parcels.

·??????Absence of building bye-laws or zoning regulations to rationalize use of land and control of built environment.

·??????High degree of land speculation due to comparatively lower land values and simple procedures of land conversion.

·??????Irrational/ non- conforming land use pattern.

·??????Dispersed pattern of development with absence of basic infrastructure and services.

·??????Absence of a rationalized traffic & transportation network with corridor pattern of development along the existing road network.

·??????Generally poor quality development and low quality of life prevailing in the area.

·??????Existence of slums/ low quality housing.

·??????Poor accessibility within the habitable areas.

·??????High degree of environmental pollution/ Degraded Environment.

·??????Absence of trunk services.

Opportunities:

Numerous opportunities offered by Peri-Urban areas can be stated in terms of:

·??????Promoting planned development of urban centers

·??????Creating large affordable housing stock in close vicinity to the mother city

·??????Ensuring dispersed pattern of urban growth

·??????Creating efficient and cost-effective land market

·??????Integrating effectively growth, development and service network of urban and Peri-Urban areas

·??????Creating a pattern of development which is affordable, economical and user- friendly.

·??????Minimizing growth of slums in the mother city

·??????Creating large opportunities for employment and economic activates

·??????Taking care of major?urban ills and problems of Indian cities

·??????Minimizing haphazard, unplanned and unregulated development on the urban fringe.

·??????Creating balance between rural and urban development

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Threats:

However, there are numerous threats posed by the Peri-Urban areas unless its planning, development and management is not made rational. These threats can be quantified in terms of:??

·??????Continued large scale conversion of agricultural land into non-agricultural uses

·??????Continued unauthorized and haphazard sub-division of agricultural land into small parcels.

·??????Absence of building bye-laws or zoning regulations to rationalize use of land and control of built environment.

·??????Large scale land speculation due to comparatively lower land values and unregulated procedures of land conversion.

·??????Continued Irrational/ non- conforming land use pattern.

·??????Absence of basic infrastructure and services.

·??????Absence of a rationalized traffic & transportation network

·??????Poor?quality of development and poor quality of life prevailing in the area.

·??????Existence of slums/ low quality housing.

·??????Poor accessibility within the habitable areas.

·??????High degree of environmental pollution/ Degraded environment.

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Strategy:

Looking at the existing pattern of growth and development of urban centres in India, it has been observed that “peri-urban” areas have profound influence and major implications for core urban areas in terms of?their planning, development and management. Major derivatives for such implications have been found to be absence of any legal framework, absence of any planning and development agency to define, promote, regulate and manage the pattern of development in the area. Considering the valuable contribution of the peri- urban areas in terms of providing day-to-day needs, employment, shelter, economy and sustainability to the mother city, their planned development assumes importance. Accordingly, strategies shall have to be formulated in order to ensure that peri-urban areas contribute effectively to the sustainability,?rational growth and development of the mother city ,rather than becoming a parasite on its resources. Such a strategy should essentially revolve around;

Creating rational legal frame work

It has been observed that planning legislation has profound implications for urban development because it defines the system of urban development, establishes the system of urban planning and regulation of land development. It also defines and delimits the role of urban planners and managers. All urban laws also define and provide for basic procedures which have to be followed in the plan preparation and plan approval before they are made operational. It also includes the penalties to be imposed in case of the violation of the provisions of the plan. Therefore, in all civilized and democratic societies, existence of a well-defined legal framework becomes a prerequisite to regulate the growth and development of urban centres. Unfortunately, in India very few states have dedicated legal framework which addresses the needs of planned development in the peri-urban areas. Most of the laws are framed with a focus to take care of the planned development of the mother city in the shape of master plans or development plans. These laws do not recognize the peri- urban areas as the area requiring planned development. In the absence of this, these areas are not subjected to any planning and development mechanism. However, in certain cases, concept of planning areas, organizable areas are followed in the preparation of master plans, but in majority of the cases these areas are marked for uses other than urban and remain outside the framework of implementation. Accordingly, it becomes essential that a rational legal framework must be put in place to effectively regulate the development outside the urban areas. Once appropriate and rational?legal framework is put in place, proper management of peri-urban areas would be much simpler, effective and efficient.

Defining Peri- Urban areas.

In order to ensure the planned growth of Peri-Urban areas, it will be critical to precisely define the extent of such areas for each city so that it can be taken care of in the planning and development process. It has also been observed that peri-urban is not a static but a dynamic concept, accordingly its extent varies with the extent of the mother city. Larger the mother city, greater has been found to be the extent of peri- urban area. Accordingly, it is important that these areas are delineated with care and sensitivity. For this a wel -defined set of parameters will be required, based on which peri-urban areas could be defined. These parameters could include population, population density, percentage of work force engaged in activities other than agriculture, areas of natural/ built?heritage, pattern of economic and physical growth and development, economic potential of the area, proximity and accessibility/ connectivity with the mother city etc. Based on these parameters Peri-Urban areas for each city should be delineated. It should be made mandatory that for each urban settlement, its Peri-Urban limits should also be defined as integral part of urban area definition so that both areas get ?integrated, so far as their planning, development and management is concerned.

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Making Peri-urban areas integral part of Planning Process

Despite the fact that pre-urban areas have important role to play and enormous potential to contribute to the rational growth and development of urban areas, they have not been duly recognized by planners. Accordingly, peri-urban areas have no recognition in the parlance of the planning process. Infact most of the existing problems of urban areas have their genesis in the mismanagement of the peri –urban areas. Accordingly, for rationalizing and promoting planned development of the urban centres, it would be critical to make the peri- urban areas as integral part of city planning and development process. Considering their proximity and future growth and development of the city, these areas need to be planned as an extension of the mother city, so that the services/infrastructure /road net-work of both these areas are effectively integrated. Once this is done, achieving the objective of planned and integrated development of peri-urban areas would be much easier, simpler and quicker.

Designating Agency for Development

Most of the growth of peri-urban areas in the Indian context has been???found to be both sub-standard, haphazard and unplanned. Major cause for this malady can be attributed to the absence of any agency designated to regulate the growth in the area. Accordingly, it will be important that an appropriate agency must be designated to regulate the development of the peri-urban areas. It could be a regional level authority in the case of a regional plan which should be entrusted with the task of managing all identified peri-urban areas in the region. Task could also be entrusted to District Planning Committee /Metropolitan Planning Committee provided these committees have necessary level of planning, development and management input. However, in case of peri-urban areas of an individual settlement, the task of management should invariably be entrusted to the ?mother-city planning and development agency. Multiplicity of agencies with overlapping areas of operation needs to be invariably avoided for minimizing conflicts, wastage, conserving and preserving resources and promoting focused planned development. For proper development, it should be ensured that local authority must prepare plans, allocate funds for infrastructure development and deploy effective machinery for regulating development within the Peri-Urban areas

Defining Development Controls/Building Bye-Laws

In order in ensure that built environment/housing?of appropriate quality and order is created based on defined norms and standards, it will be essential to put in place proper system of developmental control within the peri-urban areas. All building plans and housing development?must conform to those regulation and controls and all plans should be got approved from competent authority before construction in the area is undertaken. Since peri-urban areas are future urban areas, accordingly, it will be important that bye-laws applicable in the city should also be extended to the peri-urban areas, so that construction in area is regulated on the pattern of the mother city. However, specific bye-laws could be made for eco-sensitive areas or areas of heritage importance. These bye-laws must be given wide publicity in the area so as to make people aware about their intent and contents and ensure compliance,

Regulating Sub- division of Land

It has been observed that peri-urban areas are subjected to massive unplanned and haphazard sub-division of land which leads to emergence of large number of growth maladies in these areas. Accordingly, it becomes critical that unplanned sub-division of land in the area is effectively regulated. This would call for evolving appropriate layout plan, defining clearly the road network/amenities/services, defining shape and size of the individual parcels of land, norms for planning and development of new townships, group housing, housing colonies, laying down clearly set-back lines, ground coverage, height and FAR, so that growth and development of the area is orderly and rational. All sub-division of land should be subjected to a pre-defined planning framework and approval from the designated Authority so that haphazard growth is minimized. A well-defined framework containing appropriate planning and developmental norms for sub-division and provision of amenities would be essential and critical, to achieve the objective.

Regulating Conversion of Land Use

In order to minimize land speculation and emergence of non-conforming land uses, conversion of land from agricultural to non-agricultural uses should be effectively and efficiently regulated. It should be made more objective and focused. All applications are required to be processed in accordance with the provision of Master Plan and only those meeting the proposals/framework defined by master plan ,should be approved. The power vested with the state government to permit change of land use in contradiction to the Master Plans should be dispensed with in order to ensure that the entire growth in the peri-urban areas is within four corners of framework defined in the Master Plan.

Levying Charges

For permitting and granting approvals for sub-division, change of land use and development within the peri-urban areas, it would be critical to levy charges for land conversion and provision of local and city level infrastructures. Both internal and external developmental charges should be levied in order to generate resource for providing trunk services in the area. Charges for change of land use from agricultural to non-agricultural land use on a pre-defined scale should also be levied in order to raise??resources for the rational development of the peri-urban areas. The charges should be on different scale considering the nature of converted land use, intensity of development and location of the converted land. The charges so collected should be credited to a dedicated fund exclusively reserved for development of Peri-Urban areas. No diversion of funds should be permitted to be used in area other than Peri-Urban areas, in order to ensure its rational development.

Creating Appropriate Enforcement Machinery

In order to rationalize the growth of peri-urban areas, it will be critical not only to put a proper planning framework, but equally important would be to create a well-equipped enforcement machinery in order to check any violation, haphazard & unplanned development, unauthorized sub-division of land, change of land use and creation?of slums. Such machinery must include manpower of the appropriate order, empowered?with enough authority, equipment and resources to meet any contingency. Separate fast-track courts should be created to deal with cases of violation in the peri-urban areas, in order to ensure their quick disposal. This would help in minimizing violation in the peri-urban areas. Enforcement can also be made part of the planning agency, which can be vested with the power , authority and responsibility to regulate development in peri-urban area, in accordance with the provisions made in the master plan.

Redefining the urban limits

In order to ensure that peri-urban areas do not remain outside the ambit of growth & management and people living therein are not deprived of basic urban infrastructure/services/amenities, it would be critical that local authority limits are re-defined periodically based on the well-efined parameters so as to make peri-urban areas integral part of mother city. For this a detailed exercise must be undertaken for each urban settlement by the state Department of Town Planning in collaboration with the Department of Local Government to redefine the municipal boundaries. In fact, it would be critical for the state government to create a permanent machinery which can go into this issue on continued basis and ensure that no peri-urban area suffers mutilation?and subjected to forces of unplanned development in the state. Once peri-urban areas are integrated with the mother city, most of the urban problems can have rational solutions.

Promoting Affordable Housing

Despite the fact that housing has been declared as a priority sector and “housing for all” has been declared as the objective of National Housing Policy; still there exist a gap of 24.71 million dwelling units (2001) between demand and supply. It is estimated that the gap would increase to 26.53 mdu during the 11th plan period(2007-12), with EWS and LIG sectors accounting for 99% of the total shortage. Looking at the spatial distribution of the shortage, it is estimated that about 50% of the population of major Metropolitan cities including Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai are residents of illegal, squatter and slum settlements. It is Indian paradox that despite large increase in investment in housing, problems remain beyond solution. This dichotomy can be attributed to prevailing high land prices in the urban areas, ever increasing cost of construction, non-availability of adequate plan, compulsive building regulations leading to keeping away majority of population out of housing market.

Housing being one of the basic necessities would require focused attention with number of policy options put in place to wipe out the entire gap between demand and supply. Multi-pronged strategy, in addition to up-gradation, relocation, land sharing, reconstruction, rehabilitation etc., should also look at the enormous potential offered by the Peri-Urban areas as one of the critical options to provide affordable housing. Availability of cheaper land in large quantity in close proximity to urban centers and options of providing low- cost infrastructure and services, make Peri-Urban areas as attractive destination for creating large stock of affordable housing.

?Providing well defined incentives to private developers for creating EWS and LIG housing, using cheaper land in the peri-urban areas, can help in creation of large housing stock. Preferred allotment of land to housing co-operatives involving poorer section of society can help Peri-Urban areas emerge as the preferred destination for housing. In order to rationalize the development, it would be critical that entire Peri-Urban area is not opened for development. The development should remain focused in?pre-defined area earmarked in the development plan for housing. Parastatal agencies should provide basic infrastructures, services and amenities in the area before the housing is allowed to come up ensuring its connectivity with the mother city and important work centers. Creation of work centers can help in decentralization of cities and rationalizing its traffic. Using rationally the potential of Peri-Urban areas for large scale housing projects, can help not only in improving quality of life of majority of urban residents but also removing many existing ills of urban centers making them more affordable, productive, sustainable and efficient.

Conclusion;

Considering the critical role of peri-urban areas in the context of urban development, it would be important that these areas are properly defined, rationally planned and effectively ?developed and managed ,in terms of their growth and development. Unfortunately, most of the peri-urban areas don’t find recognition in the parlance of existing planning and management system. Legal framework to regulate the area is conspicuous by its absence. Setting up of major projects in isolation and away from the cities invariably leads to emergence of such areas. Present policy of approving Special Economic Zones (SEZ), away from the existing urban centres without any supporting framework for planned development of peri-urban areas is going to lead to enormous conversion, subdivision of land and haphazard growth and development around SEZs.?It would be important that the issue is?critically and objectively looked at , and an effective legal framework to regulate the development in these areas is put in place on priority. In fact, future livability, sustainability and productivity of Urban- India will largely depend and hinge upon , how professionally, effectively and efficiently we manage our peri-urban areas.?Conceptually Peri-Urban areas represent one of the best options for promoting balanced growth of urban and rural settlements in a mutually beneficial and supportive manner and accordingly needs to be protected and promoted with total commitment and sincerity. Adoption of the principle of developing all the urban centres with their defined periphery, can usher an era of balanced growth and prosperity, creating affordable housing for large majority of Indian masses, helping in meeting?the national target of housing for all and eliminating existing dichotomy and conflicts in urban and rural interests. Providing, ‘Housing for all, agenda by the year 2022, taken up by the Government of India, through Pradhan Mantri ?shehri /Grameen Awaas Yojna , should make optimum use of potential/advantages offered by Peri-Urban areas to realize the goal and targets?defined in the Housing Policy and SDG 11.

Threat of global warming is looming large and becoming a distinct reality. Looking at the causes, urbanization has been the major contributor and promoters of global warming. Accelerated urbanization adversely impact climate by creating demand for large mobility, increased commercial/ industrial activities, creating large built space, higher energy consumption and use of natural resources. In order to mitigate the global warming, we have to make the process of urbanization more rational and sustainable by synergizing urban and rural settlements using state of art technologies and by involving communities. ‘Combined with modern technology, better urban planning can solve many problems that cities are facing, so as to lead them to prosperity’ (UN-Habitat).

Nations, across the world, have important role to play in minimizing the global warming in general and developed / developing nations in particular. India, with large carbon footprints, has a major role to play along with China and USA, for achieving the objective of minimizing global warming. Accordingly, India has to rationalize its process of urbanization by adopting state of art urban planning, taking care of both urban and peri-urban areas in an integrated manner; promoting ruralisation by orderly planning and development of rural settlements and creating synergies between rural and urban settlements through Regional planning. Aim should be to create cities and villages with minimum carbon footprints by adopting an approach revolving around; redefining urban and village planning; ?planning compact cities; ?promoting Regional planning and ruralisation. For making this vision a distinct reality, India has to put in place appropriate policy, legal and institutional framework, duly supported by adequate and dedicated manpower and resources, involving academic institutions and industry and launching capacity building programs, involvement CBOs, NGOs, communities and other stakeholders. How quick, effectively and efficiently, we are able to do these tasks, shall hold the key to make India,?a role model?of??minimizing global warming/climate change/decarbonizing cities by creating sustainable, safe, resilient and inclusive pattern of human settlements

Bibliography

• McKinsey Global Institute: India’s Urban Awakening: Building Inclusive Cities, Sustaining Economic Growth, Report April, 2010.

·???????United Nations, New York: World Urbanization Prospects- The 2014 Revision, 2014

·???????Urban News Digest, Volume III, issue 9: www.urbannews digest. in, November,2014

·??????Government of India, Census Report. 2011

·??????UN Habitat Report, State?of World’s Cities?2008/2009- Harmonious Cities, defines the cities in their?basic characters and growth pattern :

·??????Global Warming Facts, Definition, Causes and Effects NRDC https://www.nrdc.org/stories/global-warming-101

·??????United Nations : Urbanization and climate change;

·??????unhabitat.org/urban-themes/climate-change/2012

·??????Government of India, MHURD: India Habitat III- National Report, 2016

·???????Government of India, MHUPA: Report of the Working Group on Migration, January, 2017

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Author;

Jit Kumar Gupta

Former, Director,

?College of Architecture, IET Bhaddal, Punjab

[email protected]

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