It is very significant that my dissertation has pointed out that, for humans, Daoist philosophy as a philosophy of Nature is the human’s “right hand and right foot,” while Confucian philosophy as a philosophy for humanity is that “the left hand and left foot” must be coordinated to function effectively.[1] It should be said that I have supported and developed Lin Yutang’s (2007) conception that Laozi is the right hand, while Kongzi is the left hand, to further explain that relationships and co-operations are important for humans as a whole from the philosophical perspective of wholeness, although Confucianism and Daoism in terms of their notions seem opposite, just as the human’s right and left hands or the right and left feet. That is also because without considering humanity, nature may lose its genuine significance, for my topic is regarding human leadership, and emphasizing moral and ethical leadership. There is a contribution to make by considering Confucian educational ideas and Daoist way, humans as a whole will achieve their noble and ideal high with moral and ethical content and method, particularly when applied to leadership, because leadership is a theory that has a strong feature of practicality, but philosophy as a guide is featured to be general and abstract. Throughout the dissertation, I have also strongly emphasized the educational role and educational leadership for leadership practice and for leadership studies as a whole. Education has the role of being duty-bound, and it must play the important and proper role.

1.0             Confucian Ideas and Moral and Ethical Leadership

Confucius (551-479 B.C.) is one of greatest thinkers and educators in the world. Confucius was born to a declining aristocratic family of the state of Song.[2] Confucius’s family name is Kong and his given name is Qiu in Chinese. It is said that the Kong family moved to the state of Lu, somewhere near the present town of Qufu in southeastern Shandong, to flee the turmoil in their native Song. His father died when Confucius was only three. It is said that Confucius “endured a poverty-stricken and humiliating youth and was forced, upon reaching manhood, to undertake such petty jobs as accounting and caring for livestock” (Riegel, 2006, pp.1-2).

            China is one of the oldest countries in the world. Up to the Confucian era, China underwent the Spring and Autumn, and Warring States periods of its history (770-221 B.C). During the period, small countries were fighting to conquer each other. Observing people who were surviving or could survive barely or not at all, Confucius thought teaching ancient rites from the Chinese Western Zhou Dynasty (1027-771 B.C.) was the way to create a peaceful and ideal society, like that in the old times in Chinese history.

            It is generally agreed among historians that Confucius’ philosophic and educational ideas are recorded in the “Four Books”: the Analects of Confucius (Lunyu), the Book of Mencius (Mengzi), the Great Learning (Daxue), and the Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong) (Palmer, 2001, p.1). Confucius traveled from state to state to lobby rulers to receive his ideas; he urged them to be moral. That is, Confucius urged rulers to be kind and love their people, and advocated providing education for all people without discrimination, and he said, “In teaching there should be no distinction of classes”: “有 教 无 (無) 类 (類)[yǒu jiào wú lèi]” (Lunyu, 2008, edited by Sun Zhizhai, p.213). It should be mentioned that at that time, many other schools of philosophies such as Daoism and Legalism besides Confucianism were present.

            The core of Confucian philosophical foundations is 仁 [ rén] (Benevolence). Confucius put forward two principles in relation to benevolence: “A benevolent man, wishing to be established himself, seeks also to establish others; wishing success in everything for himself, he helps others succeed in everything, too” (Yang, 1980, p.65); and “Do not do to others what you do not want yourself” (Yang, 1980, p.166; also cited by Wang, 2004, p.432). Confucius urged people to practice 修 身 [xiū shēn], translated into English as “self-cultivation” or “personal cultivation”.

            Among the many different schools of thought in Chinese society, the Confucian school has been especially influential in the area of education. Confucius was also involved in teaching and he paid attention to students’ individual characteristics. He believed that the teaching of students should be in accordance with their aptitude, and he advocated that teaching be mixed with pleasure so that students would feel learning is interesting. A teacher should be educated through constant self-cultivation in one’s life.

            It should be emphasized that one of the important contributions Confucius made to education is his thinking on moral education in China. Confucian philosophical foundations set the basis for moral education and teaching students to be moral and ethical people in society, based on such doctrines as the following:

1)   Human beings are born being good.

2)   Human nature develops through habit.

(The Works of Mencius, edited by Sun, 2011)

            Mencius (372-289 B.C.), one of the most outstanding representatives of Confucianism, believed that everyone is born with four kinds of potential virtues, which are benevolence, righteousness, courteousness and wisdom. The innate potential for these virtues provide the basic starting point for individuals to successfully develop to be virtuous. Regarding the issue of moral education, Mencius emphasized the importance of the role the environment plays in it. The following words from Mencius are interesting and significant:

Whoever has no sense of compassion is not human; whoever has no sense of shame is not human; whoever has no sense of modesty is not human; and whoever has no sense of right and wrong is not human. The sense of compassion is the beginning of benevolence; the sense of shame the beginning of righteousness; the sense of modesty the beginning of courtesy; the sense of right and wrong the beginning of wisdom. Man possesses these four beginnings just as he possesses four limbs… If these are fully developed, he can protect the whole world; if not he will not even be able to serve his parents. (The Works of Mencius, edited by Sun, 2011, pp.73-74; cited by Yang, 1960, p.80; cited also by Wang, 2004, pp.430-431)[3]

            Mencius also urged the rulers and the individuals love and respect people, and he said, “The benevolent man loves others. The man of propriety shows respect to others. He who loves others is constantly loved by them. He who respects others is constantly respected by them”: “仁 者 爱 (愛) 人, 有 礼 (禮) 者 敬 人。爱 (愛) 人 者, 人 恒 爱 (愛) 之; 敬 人 者, 人 恒 敬 之”   (The works of Mencius, 2011, edited by Sun Zhizhai, pp.194-195).

            With time, Confucian ideas intermingled with ideas of Daoism, Legalism, and Buddhism and so on, especially during changes of rulers and according to the rulers’ preferences and needs during the later dynasties. Up to the end of the Ming (1368-1644) and the beginning of Qing dynasty (1644-1911), the Confucian educational system in Chinese imperial society had become only a tool for the rulers to rule the country through narrow access – all levels examinations from the bottom to the top, with rigid content and form – for preparing government officials of the imperial court. Confucian traditions and educational practices up to then had already evolved into extreme forms and seriously inhibited the Chinese people’s minds (Zhang et al., 2000).

            However, as a great thinker and educator in the world, Confucius and his philosophy have continued influence to Chinese scholars and society for many years, and in fact, Confucian thinking has already influenced other East Asian countries such as Japan and Korea. Today, the ancient treasure of Confucian thinking seems to still contain great charm for educators to explore. For example, Tan[4] (2012) has argued in “Democracy in Confucianism” that “Dewey’s concepts of democracy as the idea of community and primarily a moral ideal has also inspired attempts to reconstruct Confucian democracy” (Abstract), additionally the conceptions are viewed as political systems. Moreover, its values for today can also be found and used by studying neo-Confucian thoughts. That is as Cha[5] (2003) has pointed out after studying about modern neo-Confucianism: “the way of thinking of modern neo-Confucian intellectuals demonstrates the practical possibility of different cultures entering into dialogue, learning from each other, and co-existing, as they each maintain their own identities” (p.488).

According to Lang et al. (2012) in their article “An Emergent Leadership Model based on Confucian Virtues and East Asian Leadership”, Rén (Benevolence) is the fundamental virtue among all the Confucian virtues, such as Yì (Righteousness), Li (Propriety), Zhì (Wisdom), Xìn (Trustworthiness), Zhong and Shù (Loyalty and Reciprocity), Xiào (Filial Piety). Lang et al. therefore conclude with other authors, such as McDonald (2011) and Chan (2008) that one of the greatest goals of Confucianism was the achievement of social harmony, due to the continuation and maintenance of harmonious relationships of members, which ensures the stability and solidarity of civil society. Also, Lang et al. has indicated that, for example, it is extremely important for every individual to observe and perform virtues to achieve a harmonious social relationship. When rén (benevolence) and yì (righteousness) are instilled into the hierarchical system of social relationship and when li (rules of propriety) is observed and practiced with faithfulness, governance and social harmony can be achieved in a society, as Chan (2008) has pointed out.

Farth and Cheng (2000) have also stated, the Confucian ideal includes that leaders should be benevolent and humane to the followers, they should cultivate themselves according to rules of propriety, and they should lead by adopting moral persuasion and setting moral examples. Collcutt (1991) has indicated that the shared Confucian cultural values and traditions have played a significant part in the East Asian leadership practices, which have been to be beneficial to the economic successes of East Asian countries and regions. Therefore, Lang et al. (2012) conclude that “Confucian cultural values and traditions has significant implications for developing an ideal and desirable global leadership, enhancing the global capacities of leadership theories and practices, and achieving harmony and peace in the world” (p. 11).

Confucianism as a traditional philosophy is certainly has its values, especially its value in education and moral and ethical advocacy to leaders to cultivating one’s moral character, are still very attractive and useful today. Generally speaking, it should, after all, be pointed out that if we do not follow the rules, we cannot do the right thing. However, if the rules that we make are going against nature, then we cannot do the right thing either. In Chapter 5, I introduce and discuss Daoism and its philosophical ideas and wisdom to moral and ethical leadership.

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[1] Regarding this point of view, I will have specific explanations in Chapter Seven related to discussions of “Benefits of Hong Kong Chinese CEOs’ Confucian and Daoist Leadership Styles” by Cheung and Chan (2008).

[2] In Chinese history, there were many small states in China, and Song was one of them.

[3] There are the different English versions of translation for the original Chinese message from Mencius.

[4] Tan is an Assistant Professor of Philosophy at the National University of Singapore.

[5] Cha is a professor at Hanil University in South Korea.