The concept of the whole and its parts is at the heart of complexity and systems thinking

Introduction

In my research work on the preparation and construction of continuous operational interoperability for PLM (Product Lifecycle Management), Virtual Manufacturing, MBSE (Model-Based Systems Engineering), and enterprise architecture, I have delved deeply into semantic interoperability, relying on ontologies and semantic graphs, even hypergraphs, to capture multiple representations around the same object or concept in environments constituting the chain of design, manufacturing, and operation/maintenance systems of the application solutions to be deployed and integrated. Over the past few years, I have also explored the emerging landscape of technologies supposedly oriented towards "graphs," studying and analyzing the diversity of these technologies.

However, a graph, in any case, constitutes a flat representation of things and does not take into account either the aspect of representing complex composite systems or the modular structure of representations of these systems. This leads to the limitation of what graphs can do to address complex systems, even systems of systems. We then step fully into the realm of complexity and the means to apprehend and take it into account. The issue is not new, and it has been addressed and illustrated by philosophy, literature, or various scientific domains. Today, the question of multidisciplinary collaborations and global approaches to solving modern challenges such as climate change or the interdependencies between the economy, society, and the environment arises. However, the ways of understanding, describing, modeling, and taking it into account are multiple and vary greatly depending on their origins, motivations, and associated context, reflecting the complexity and variability of the real world but also the impact of the information society, with which every individual or group has access to all this information and approaches that have been and continue to be produced disparately and independently. Without the illusion of being able to unify these approaches, it can be useful to bring them closer together to bring about a semblance of harmonization, to be able to rely on those that bring the most value and to identify the truly important scientific hurdles to overcome that limit their utility.

My exploration of the subject, both in terms of the state of the art and practice, has highlighted the importance of the concept of "whole and part(s)," which lies at the heart of complexity and systems thinking without it being formally explained or sufficiently taken into account.

This article is somewhat my travelogue during my exploration of the subject, with everything that has informed my thinking, whether through literature and pop culture, philosophy, yogic sciences, religions, and finally systems engineering and modeling practices.

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Literature and Pop Culture

Blaise Pascal

At the intersection of literature and philosophy, it is impossible for me not to mention Blaise Pascal. Blaise Pascal was a philosopher, mathematician, and physicist of the 17th century. He notably addressed complexity through his Pensées, where he discussed the human condition in all its complexity and introduced the notion of the "Pascalian vertigo." This notion provides a perspective on how the complexity of human existence can evoke both fascination and anxiety. He considered the human condition as a "misery" due to the complex nature of existence. He acknowledged that man is caught between infinite extremes, such as the infinitely small (subatomic particles) and the infinitely large (the universe), creating a sense of vertigo in the face of the immensity of the universe. The "Pascalian vertigo" refers to the feeling of anguish or insecurity felt by man when contemplating the immensity and complexity of the universe. This vertigo arises from the confrontation with the infinite and immeasurable, highlighting the smallness and vulnerability of the individual. Pascal emphasized the duality of man, capable of great intellectual and moral nobility, but also subject to weakness, error, and fragility. This duality is a manifestation of the inherent complexity of human nature. Pascal addressed the diversity of perspectives on life, faith, and knowledge, thus highlighting the complexity of perceptions and interpretations that can coexist within society.

Pascal's thought highlights the ambiguity of existence, where man is confronted with uncertainties, paradoxes, and mysteries. This ambiguity contributes to the complexity of self-understanding and the world.

Pascal's thought also emphasized the existence of mysteries and paradoxes, inviting man to accept the uncertainty and complexity inherent in life.

By setting aside the metaphysical aspects of Pascal's thought, which explore the complexity of the relationship between faith, reason, and mystery, offering a profound perspective on existential questions, but by taking the scientific aspect with the viewpoint of the engineer or architect, Pascal's work remains striking in expressing what complexity is and its impact. His work in the fields of mathematics, physics, and philosophy testifies to his deep understanding of complexity in various aspects of life and nature. His scientific approach to complexity is reflected notably in:

Probabilities and Probability Calculus: Pascal's work on probability theory, particularly his correspondence with Pierre de Fermat, laid the foundations for probability calculus. He addressed complex problems related to gambling and decision-making, showing how probabilities can be used to model uncertainty.

The Arithmetic Machine: Pascal designed and built the "arithmetic machine," a mechanical device that could perform mathematical operations. This work reflects his understanding of the complexities of computation and the need to develop tools to facilitate complex calculations.

The Gas Law: In the field of physics, Pascal contributed to formulating the ideal gas law. His work helped understand the complex relationships between the pressure, volume, and temperature of gases, thus making a significant contribution to the understanding of thermodynamic phenomena.

Projective Geometry: Pascal also made contributions to projective geometry, notably with the "Pascal's Theorem." This theorem illustrates the complexity of the relationships between points in a geometric figure, highlighting complex interconnections and configurations.

Experiments on Vacuum: Pascal conducted experiments on vacuum, using a barometer to show variations in atmospheric pressure with altitude. His experiments contributed to the complex understanding of fluid physics and vacuum.

Scientific Method: Pascal's scientific method is characterized by its empirical, experimental, and logical approach to addressing complex problems. He emphasized the importance of rigor and method in understanding natural phenomena.

What also strikes me about Pascal is that he is a philosopher in the old sense, that is, before the explosion of knowledge between compartmentalized and sometimes hermetic domains, which we strive to connect through initiatives themselves independent and aiming to provide frameworks for multidisciplinary reconciliation, always however with a restricted scope. Embracing all knowledge remains from my point of view a utopian dream.

Gulliver's Travels

"Gulliver's Travels" by Jonathan Swift, first published in 1726, is often interpreted as a satire of human nature, society, and institutions of the time. Although the work is often read as a social and political critique, it also offers interesting perspectives on the complexity of various aspects of human life. Here are some ways in which Gulliver's travels can contribute to reflecting on complexity.

Gulliver's travels lead him to very different societies, with each island encountered representing a distinct culture. This highlights the complexity of cultural diversity and introduces the notion of cultural relativism, where each society has its own norms and values.

Gulliver, being confronted with societies with radically different perspectives, highlights the complexity of perceptions and interpretations. Each island offers a unique perspective on human nature and society, emphasizing the relativity of viewpoints.

The satire of institutions and political systems in Gulliver's travels emphasizes the complexity of social structures. Swift uses exaggeration and grotesque to highlight the absurdities and inconsistencies that can exist within these institutions.

Gulliver's different encounters highlight the contradictory nature of human beings. The inhabitants of each island have exaggerated characteristics, emphasizing the complexity of human behavior, sometimes unpredictable and irrational.

Gulliver's travels address the role of technology and science in society. Each island presents a different approach to these areas, illustrating the complexity of the social and ethical consequences of technological advances.

The changes in scale in Gulliver's travels, from the Lilliputians to the Brobdingnagians, highlight the relativity of perspective and the complexity of human relationships. Differences in size amplify the nuances and complications of interactions.

The travels highlight moral ambiguity, where actions considered morally right in one culture may be viewed differently in another. This illustrates the complexity of moral judgments and ethical standards.

Gulliver's quest to discover new lands and cultures highlights the inherent complexity of exploration and encountering the unknown. Each new discovery adds nuances to his understanding of the world.

In summary, "Gulliver's Travels" contribute to reflection on complexity by exploring various aspects of human nature, society, and intercultural relations. Satire, exaggeration, and the variety of islands visited offer a complex canvas that encourages contemplation of the nuances and contradictions present in life and society.

Tolkien

Tolkien's work is a masterful work of fiction distinguished by the complexity of its world, the depth of its history, and how it integrates diverse theological elements into a unifying narrative. The unified vision of destiny, expansive time scales, and complex themes make his work a significant contribution to fantasy literature.

"The Silmarillion" is a compilation of stories, myths, and legends that form an extensive mythological background for the universe of Middle-earth. Tolkien explores immense time scales, covering the genesis of the world and races to events contemporaneous with "The Lord of the Rings." The vision of creation by Ilúvatar, with the initial music and the intervention of the Ainur, gives a poetic and complex dimension to the genesis of Tolkien's universe. It all begins with music, illustrating a unique cosmogonic approach. "The Silmarillion" addresses various theological themes, from the actions of the Valar (deities) to the destiny of Elves and Men. Tolkien presents a unifying vision that integrates elements of mono- and polytheism into a coherent framework.

"The Lord of the Rings" presents a variety of temporal scales, ranging from the instantaneous to the millennial. Contemporary events, such as the quest for the Ring, are influenced by ancient events, adding historical depth and temporal complexity to the plot. The quest for the Ring is intimately linked to the fate of the world, highlighting how seemingly small events can have consequences on a global scale. This reinforces the unified vision of destiny in the work.

Although "The Hobbit" was initially conceived as a children's tale, Tolkien introduces elements that later connect to the events of "The Lord of the Rings." This narrative retrocompatibility adds additional complexity and depth to the overall work. Some references in "The Hobbit" refer to "The Silmarillion," suggesting continuity between the stories and establishing a complex and interconnected narrative framework.

In "The Silmarillion," the creation of the world begins with music, and light is a recurring symbol. The trees of Valinor, the Silmarils, and the light of E?rendil represent motifs of light and harmony.

While Tolkien did not explicitly use wave theory in his work, the importance of music and light could be interpreted as a metaphor for a reality shaped by vibrational or wave forces.

Pop Culture through American Comics

Okay, I admit it, I'm a geek. From a young age, I was first fascinated by Egyptian, Greek, and Roman mythology, and it was only natural for me to transition into the world of comics that popularized science fiction, exploring topics related to the existence of the microverse and the macroverse. These fictional worlds foster for me an imagination linked to the inventiveness and curiosity of scientists, from the notion of the atom in ancient Greek times to the discovery and exploration of cells, molecules, atoms, quarks, etc. Conversely, we observe and imagine the infinitely large scale of our personal environment towards our planet, the solar system, galaxies, and the entire universe. While the scientific and technological baggage required is far from within everyone's reach to become a specialist in the field, I am convinced that popular culture can influence us from a young age by exciting our imagination. Note that, to my knowledge, there are no heroes from mythology who explore the infinitely small or the infinitely large. Microscopes and telescopes did not exist yet. So, a few examples from the world of comics:

Regarding size change, we can mention Hank Pym, alias Ant-Man, who has the ability to change size, from the size of an ant to that of a giant. This exploration of scale offers perspectives on the diversity of environments and challenges associated with different sizes. His journeys on a microscopic scale can be considered as explorations of a world at a reduced scale but still observable without particular technological means. For cinema, there are films like "Honey, I Shrunk the Kids" or "Arthur and the Invisibles."

There is also the idea of the Microverse, which exists at a subatomic scale. It has been explored by Bruce Banner alias Hulk, who has been involved in stories where he has traveled to the Microverse, notably to the world of Jarella. These journeys offer an exploration of the macroverse and the microverse, highlighting the varied dimensions accessible to superheroic heroes. It is from this world that Psycho-Man comes. The existence and powers of this character are intimately linked to microscopic realities, offering a fascinating window into potential threats from infinitely small dimensions. There are also the Micronauts, characters whose adventures mainly take place in the Microverse. Their story offers an in-depth exploration of this infinitely small realm, highlighting the diversity of worlds and civilizations that can exist at this scale.

Conversely, "cosmic" characters in the science fiction universe contribute to expanding our vision of the scale of existence by introducing forces and concepts that transcend the scope of everyday human life. They encourage us to reflect on the immensity of the universe and the forces that operate on a scale far beyond our usual understanding.

For example, cosmic entities such as the Celestials, Galactus, and the Infinity in the Marvel universe play an essential role in expanding the narrative scale beyond mere humans. These characters represent colossal forces that operate on a cosmic scale, far exceeding human understanding of the universe. Here's how these entities contribute to imagining a larger scale.

The Celestials are extraterrestrial entities endowed with phenomenal powers. Their operating scale exceeds that of mere planets, and they are often associated with star manipulation and the creation of new forms of life. Their existence suggests cosmic forces well beyond normal human reach. Some stories depict the Celestials as cosmic judges who assess and decide the fate of worlds. Their role transcends earthly conflicts and highlights the relative insignificance of human stakes on a cosmic scale.

Galactus is a cosmic entity that feeds on the life energy of planets. Its physical dimension and power far exceed human understanding, and it is often depicted as an inevitable force, indifferent to human concerns. Galactus is sometimes presented as a cosmic necessity, balancing forces in the universe by absorbing and redistributing the energy of planets. This highlights an operational scale where a planet's survival can depend on massive cosmic factors.

Infinity is an abstract cosmic entity, representing the infinite aspect of the universe. Its existence transcends the notion of size or dimension, symbolizing the infinite extent of reality. This invites us to imagine concepts beyond human reach. Infinity is often linked to metaphysical and conceptual aspects. Its representation as a cosmic entity reveals a scale that goes beyond the material limits of the observable universe.

The interactions between these entities often exceed ordinary human understanding, offering a fascinating perspective on the immense and complex scale of the universe. And they are a formidable engine for our imagination when we have to consider the complexity of the universe around us.

Conclusion about literature and pop culture

In exploring the intersections of literature, philosophy, and popular culture with the concept of complexity, we embark on a journey through the human imagination, where narratives and symbols intertwine to reflect the multifaceted nature of existence.

We encounter rich tapestries of thought that illuminate the complexities of our world. These texts serve as portals into the human psyche, offering glimpses of our ongoing quest to comprehend the interconnectedness of all things.

In popular culture, we find echoes of these themes in films, television series, and music that grapple with the enigmatic nature of reality. From mind-bending sci-fi narratives to introspective indie films, creators explore themes of emergence, chaos, and interconnectedness, inviting audiences to contemplate the mysteries of existence.

Through literature and pop culture, we are reminded that complexity is not merely a scientific concept but a fundamental aspect of the human experience. As we immerse ourselves in these narratives, we are invited to embrace the inherent ambiguity and uncertainty of life, finding beauty in the chaos and meaning in the interconnectedness of all things.

Let's explore further how philosophy have been dealing with complexity.

Philosophy and complexity

Alright, I mentioned Blaise Pascal, who belonged to a time when the boundary between philosopher, scientist, and literary figure wasn’t drawn so sharply. When we delve into philosophical works and theories, the notions of complexity, multiple scales, and the concept of "whole and part" are not left behind. Besides Pascal, we can start with the Greek philosophers and their legacy, the atom.

The Greek Philosophers

Indeed, the ancient Greek philosophers made significant contributions to pondering the nature of reality, including ideas that have implications for our understanding of complexity and scale. Among these thinkers, the Greek atomists, notably Leucippus and Democritus, played a significant role in the development of atomistic theory.

Leucippus (circa 5th century BCE) and his student Democritus (460-370 BCE) developed the atomistic theory, according to which all matter is composed of fundamental entities called "atomoi" (atoms), a term derived from the Greek word "atomos," meaning "indivisible." The concept of the atom in Leucippus and Democritus suggests a microscopic scale of reality, where matter consists of indivisible elementary particles. Although their atomistic understanding does not exactly correspond to that of modern physics, it laid the groundwork for atomic thought.

Anaxagoras (500-428 BCE) contributed to cosmic philosophy by introducing the idea that everything in the universe is made up of infinitely divisible particles called "nous" (mind or intelligence). Although his conception is not strictly atomistic, it addresses the inherent complexity of the nature of reality.

Empedocles (490-430 BCE) proposed the theory of the four elements (earth, water, air, fire), suggesting that the diversity of matter arises from the combination of these elements. Although this idea is not atomistic, it illustrates the ancient Greeks' quest to understand the composition of matter.

Plato (428-348 BCE) and Aristotle (384-322 BCE) developed metaphysical ideas and discussed the nature of reality, although their perspectives diverged from those of the atomists. However, their contributions influenced philosophical thought on the complex nature of reality.

The notion of the atom in Leucippus and Democritus served as an essential starting point for the later understanding of matter on the microscopic scale. Although atomistic ideas were lost for a period, they were revived in modern times and led to the formulation of atomic theory in physics. The term "atom" itself, with its Greek etymology, underscores the persistent influence of ancient Greek thought on the development of fundamental concepts in the natural sciences. Thus, the Greek philosophers laid the groundwork for contemplating the nature of reality, including ideas that centuries later found resonance in the development of atomic physics and the understanding of matter on a microscopic scale.

Descartes

René Descartes, a philosopher of the 17th century, is primarily known for his rationalism and method of systematic doubt, as well as for his famous declaration "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am). The Cartesian approach still strongly influences scientific approaches, especially in France, when dealing with problems. However, it presents certain characteristics that are important to contrast with contemporary perspectives on complexity and systems.

Descartes introduced the method of radical doubt to reach indubitable truths. However, this led him to adopt a reductionist approach, seeking to reduce the complexity of reality to simple and indubitable elements. Contemporary approaches to complexity highlight the need to understand systems in their entirety, considering the complex interactions among their parts. Cartesian reductionism can be criticized as being too simplifying to grasp the real complexity of natural phenomena.

Descartes established a clear distinction between body and mind, considering the body as a material machine and the mind as immaterial. This duality can be seen as an attempt to simplify the understanding of human nature. Contemporary approaches to complexity in cognitive science and neuroscience emphasize the intrinsic interconnection between body and mind. Complex systems interact dynamically, and the strict separation between body and mind can be considered overly simplistic.

Descartes contributed to popularizing the mechanistic model of the world, considering nature to function like a machine governed by deterministic mechanical laws. Contemporary approaches to complexity challenge strict determinism and highlight nonlinear phenomena, feedback loops, and emergent properties that are not well represented by the mechanistic model.

Descartes sought indubitable foundations to establish the certainty of knowledge. His "Cogito" represents the only unquestionable certainty he found. Contemporary approaches to complexity often acknowledge the inherent uncertainty in complex systems. Cartesian certainty can be seen as too ambitious in a world where uncertainty, variability, and nonlinearity play a major role.

The Cartesian vision has had a profound influence on classical science, particularly in the field of Newtonian physics, which adopted a deterministic and mechanistic view of the world. Contemporary approaches to complexity, especially in fields such as quantum physics, systems biology, and social sciences, have questioned some aspects of the mechanistic model, introducing concepts such as probability, indeterminism, and self-organization.

The Cartesian approach, characterized by reductionism, dualism, and classical mechanism, can be contrasted with contemporary perspectives that emphasize complexity, interconnectedness, uncertainty, and emergence. These more recent perspectives seek to embrace complexity rather than simplify it, recognizing the dynamic and interdependent nature of complex systems in various scientific and philosophical domains.

Kant

Immanuel Kant, an 18th-century German philosopher, also made significant contributions to philosophy that can be explored in the context of complexity. His works, especially his Critique of Pure Reason, had a significant impact on modern philosophy.

Kant emphasized the limits of human reason. He distinguished between "phenomenology" (the world as it appears to us) and "noumenology" (the world as it is in itself). This distinction highlights the complexity of reality, emphasizing that our understanding is always mediated by the structures of our thought. Kant formulated "antinomies," apparent contradictions in human thought on fundamental questions like infinity, eternity, etc. These antinomies highlight the inherent complexity in metaphysical reflection.

Kant developed the idea of the categorical imperative, a fundamental moral rule that demands we act in such a way that our action could be erected into a universal law. This perspective highlights the complexity of ethical dilemmas and the necessity of considering the universal implications of our actions.

In his Critique of Judgment, Kant explores aesthetic judgment and its role in apprehending beauty. This reflection highlights the subjectivity of taste and the complexity of aesthetic experiences.

Kant introduced the idea of "totality," suggesting that human thought is naturally inclined to think in terms of complete systems. This can be related to human quest for a comprehensive and unified understanding of the world.

Kant emphasized human rationality and moral autonomy. This can be linked to the complexity of moral decision-making and ethical questions, requiring deep reflection and consideration.

Though Kant did not elaborate a complete philosophy of history, his ideas about progress and education are often associated with an optimistic view of humanity. The notion of progress underscores the complexity of historical and social development.

Kant developed transcendental idealism, arguing that certain aspects of our experience are determined by the a priori structure of our mind. This has implications for how we understand and interpret the complexity of the world.

In summary, Kant's thought addresses various aspects of complexity, ranging from the limits of knowledge and ethical dilemmas to aesthetic subjectivity and human rationality. His contributions have influenced many areas of modern philosophy and continue to be explored in the context of understanding the complexity of reality.

Modern Philosophies

Modern philosophy has made significant contributions to reflecting on complexity, addressing the complex nature of reality and exploring how we can understand it. Here are some modern philosophical currents and their contributions to the notion of complexity, with differences in position.

• There is German idealism (Hegelianism). Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, a German philosopher, developed a dialectical vision of history and reality. According to Hegel, reality is in constant evolution through contradictions and successive syntheses, forming a complex process. Hegelian dialectics has highlighted the dynamic and ever-changing nature of reality, emphasizing its inherent complexity.
• There is existentialism. Existentialists, such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, delved into the complexity of human existence, emphasizing individual freedom, responsibility, and existential angst. Existentialism highlights the complexity of human choices, values, and commitments, exploring the deep and sometimes paradoxical dimension of existence.
• There is phenomenology. It examines the structure of consciousness and subjective experience. It considers reality as constituted by consciousness. Phenomenology has enriched the understanding of reality by highlighting the complexity of the multiple perspectives and interpretations that emerge from individual consciousness.
• There is pragmatism. Pragmatist philosophers such as Charles Sanders Peirce and William James emphasized the importance of practical experience and action. Truth is defined in terms of utility and practical consequences. Pragmatism underscores the complexity of real situations, considering truth and reality as contingent and context-dependent.
• There is structuralism and post-structuralism. Structuralism, represented by thinkers such as Claude Lévi-Strauss, analyzes the underlying structures of social and linguistic phenomena. Post-structuralist philosophers like Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida criticized structuralism, emphasizing the instability of categories and the multiplicity of discourses. These currents highlight the complexity of social, linguistic, and cultural structures, questioning the possibility of defining stable and universal systems.
• There is complexity philosophy. Edgar Morin, a French philosopher, developed a philosophy of complexity that addresses complex systems and interactions between different parts of a whole. Complexity philosophy proposes a holistic approach, considering reality as composed of interconnected systems, highlighting the need to think multidimensionally and nonlinearly.
• There is analytic and continental philosophy. Analytic philosophy, often associated with thinkers like Bertrand Russell and Ludwig Wittgenstein, is characterized by its analytical and logical approach. Continental philosophy, represented by figures such as Jean-Paul Sartre and Jacques Derrida, often explores more existential and phenomenological questions. Both traditions have enriched reflection on complexity, with analytics providing logical and analytical tools, while the continental explores more subjective and contextual dimensions.
• There is holism, represented by Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, Jan Smuts. Holism contends that the whole has an independent reality and that the parts can only be fully understood in the context of the whole. In the opposite, there is reductionism, championed by Descartes. Reductionism suggests that complex phenomena can be understood by reducing them to simpler components, breaking down systems into their constituent parts to understand their fundamental properties. This reductionist approach has been prevalent in various scientific disciplines, from physics to biology, aiming to uncover the underlying mechanisms governing phenomena.Nestled between holism and reductionism lies the concept of holons, introduced by Arthur Koestler to describe a unit that is both a whole and a part. Holons are part of hierarchical structures called holarchies. Holons serve as a bridge between these two philosophical perspectives. They are entities that exhibit both holistic and reductionist properties, as they are simultaneously wholes within themselves and parts of larger wholes.
• There is formal philosophy. As a discipline that focuses on using formal methods such as logic and mathematics to address philosophical problems, it has direct relevance for understanding complexity. Formal philosophy offers formal modeling tools that allow for representing and analyzing complex structures. These models can include logical concepts, mathematical structures, and formal systems that help articulate and understand the complexity of phenomena. Formal philosophy provides methods for analyzing the structure of complex systems, especially through formal languages and logical systems. This enables a deeper understanding of the relationships between parts and interactions within complex systems. The logical reasoning tools of formal philosophy are used to deduce logical consequences from complex propositions. This is particularly useful for exploring the complexity of causal relationships and dependencies in various areas of philosophy.
• Formal ontology, a branch of formal philosophy, examines the nature of existence and reality. It contributes to understanding entities and relationships within complex systems. Formal epistemology explores the nature and structure of knowledge. It can help elucidate the complexity of cognitive processes and epistemic relationships in complex systems. Some complex systems involve significant temporal components.
• Temporal logic, an area of formal philosophy, provides ways to model and reason about temporality in complex contexts. In sum, formal philosophy provides valuable conceptual and methodological tools for addressing complexity. The use of formal languages, logical models, and mathematical systems contributes to a more rigorous and precise approach to understanding complex systems, whether ontological, epistemological, logical, or temporal.
• Finally, there is the philosophical current related to cybernetics, which has contributed to understanding complexity and is often associated with the thought of Norbert Wiener, one of the pioneers of cybernetics. Cybernetics, initially developed in the 1940s-1950s, explores communication and control systems in living beings and machines. Norbert Wiener proposed ideas that influenced how we understand complexity and dynamic systems. Wiener introduced the concept of "feedback," which is essential in understanding complex systems. Feedback represents how a system receives information about its own functioning, which can lead to adjustments and adaptations. Wiener advocated an interdisciplinary approach, emphasizing the importance of combining perspectives from various fields to understand complex systems. This has had profound implications for how complexity is approached in contemporary research. Wiener also contributed to information theory by developing ideas related to entropy and information transmission. These concepts have direct implications for understanding complex systems in terms of organization and flow of information. Wiener's view of systems as autonomous entities, capable of adjusting based on the information they receive, has influenced how we approach the complexity of dynamic systems. Cybernetics, with Norbert Wiener's contribution, laid the groundwork for a systemic and interdisciplinary approach to understanding complex systems. These ideas have had an impact on various fields, including biology, psychology, sociology, and have contributed to shaping the philosophy of complexity in the context of cybernetics.

Conclusion about philosophy and complexity

In reflecting on the intersection of philosophy and complexity within our discussion, we unearth a profound symbiosis between these two realms of human inquiry. Through the lens of philosophical exploration, we discern that complexity is not merely a contemporary fascination but a timeless enigma woven into the fabric of existence.

From ancient philosophical treatises to modern-day discourse, thinkers have grappled with the intricate interplay of elements within systems, probing the nature of interconnectedness, emergence, and unpredictability. Through dialectical reasoning and contemplative inquiry, philosophers have sought to unveil the underlying order amidst apparent chaos, offering insights that resonate across disciplines.

In delving into the depths of philosophical inquiry, we find resonance with contemporary efforts in system thinking and modeling. These methodologies, rooted in a holistic understanding of complex systems, echo the philosophical quest for comprehensive comprehension and systemic insight.

Luc Ferry's publications on Greek mythology have illustrated how science and religion were closely linked in the Greek world, reflecting humanity's relationship with complexity. Isn't this partially the case for other religions? Let's explore this point.

Religions

Greek and Roman Polytheistic Religions

In Greek and Roman polytheisms, the theme of complexity and scale was also addressed, albeit in a manner different from that of monotheistic traditions. The myths and beliefs of these polytheisms often highlight multiple deities and complex relationships among the gods, thus reflecting various aspects of existence and nature.

The Greek and Roman pantheons were characterized by a multiplicity of gods and goddesses, each representing different aspects of reality, from natural forces to human aspects. The relationships between the gods were often complex, involving alliances, rivalries, and divine intrigues. These relationships shed light on the complexity of the forces at work in the world, both on the human and cosmic levels.

Some Greek gods, such as Uranus (Sky) and Gaia (Earth) or the Titans, represented immense cosmic forces, emphasizing the scale of the universe and its connection to the earth. Other gods, like Zeus, Apollo, or Athena, were anthropomorphic, sharing human characteristics while maintaining influence on the cosmic scale.

Creation myths explored the origins of the universe, often through narratives involving the struggle against chaos and the formation of order. These myths reflected the inherent complexity in the genesis of the universe. Some myths emphasized the need for order and stability in the universe, warning against the consequences of disorder and chaos.

Deities such as Demeter (agriculture), Poseidon (sea), and Dionysus (wine and festivities) were associated with specific aspects of nature, illustrating the complex relationship between the gods and the natural world. Natural forces were sometimes considered as manifestations of divine wills, thus highlighting the connection between the gods and the complexity of natural phenomena.

Greek and Roman gods frequently intervened in human life, showing how divine interactions could influence the scale of human events. The relationships between the gods and heroes, such as Heracles or Achilles, were complex and illustrated the coexistence of divine influence and human autonomy.

In conclusion, Greek and Roman polytheisms addressed complexity and scale through their rich pantheons, creation myths, cosmic deities, and their relationship with nature and humans. These beliefs provided a narrative framework for understanding the diversity and interconnection of forces at work in the ancient world, with a strong connection to science, as highlighted by Luc Ferry's publications on Greek mythology.

Christianity

Christianity, with its teachings on the unity of God and the notion of the Whole, offers a particular perspective that can be interpreted in the context of complexity and scale. Although Christian theology does not explicitly focus on scientific concepts, it addresses metaphysical ideas that can be connected to a broader understanding of reality.

Christianity teaches the unity of God, often described as "The One" or "The Whole." This conception of a single, transcendent God can be interpreted as an affirmation of the fundamental unity of all creation. The idea of the unity of God has metaphysical implications that suggest that all reality originates in God. This can be considered a holistic view of existence, where everything is interconnected in a divine unity.

The Christian belief in the omnipresence of God, that is, the presence of God everywhere, underscores God's transcendence beyond the limits of space and time. This idea can be related to the complexity of existence at different scales. The notion of "All in One" can be associated with a systemic view where each element of creation contributes to an interconnected whole. This may evoke reflections on the complexity of relationships and interactions on a cosmic scale.

According to Christian theology, God is the creator of all things. This implies a vision of creation as an interconnected whole, where each element finds its origin in God and is linked to the divine Whole. Human responsibility as stewards of creation, as mentioned in Genesis, suggests an understanding of the complexity of ecosystems and the need to care for the entire creation.

The Christian idea of a divine plan and providence underscores an overall view of human history. This can be interpreted as a consideration of the scale of events within the framework of a global divine purpose. The Christian perspective on divine temporality, where God transcends time, can be associated with the complexity of understanding time on a divine rather than human scale.

It should be noted that the symbolism of light in Christianity is rich in meanings, representing divine presence, truth, eternal life, salvation, and hope. These symbols contribute to theological and spiritual understanding in the context of the Christian faith.

Although these religious concepts do not directly translate into scientific concepts, they offer a perspective on the interconnectedness of all things, suggesting a holistic and integral view of reality that can fuel reflections on complexity and scale within a Christian worldview.

The Muslim Religion

The Muslim religion, through its theological, cosmological, and ethical teachings, contributes to a unified and holistic view of reality. Concepts such as Tawhid, understanding of divine creation, the perception of temporal scale, and emphasis on human interconnectedness reflect a complex and integrated approach to Islamic faith.

The central concept in Islam is Tawhid, expressing the absolute and transcendent unity of God (Allah). This divine unity underscores the simplicity and uniqueness at the foundation of all creation. Tawhid offers a unified vision of reality, where everything originates from a single source. This contributes to a holistic understanding of existence and emphasizes the interconnectedness of all things.

According to Islamic belief, God is the Creator of all that exists. Creation is seen as a manifestation of divine wisdom, involving intrinsic complexity and a variety of entities. Islamic cosmological beliefs address the scale of the universe, from the infinitely small to the infinitely large, emphasizing the grandeur of divine creation.

Islamic teachings encompass the entirety of human history, from the creation of Adam to the end times (Qiyamah). Islam provides a temporal scale that encompasses the past, present, and future. Belief in Judgment Day (Qiyamah) underscores an ultimate vision of temporal scale, where each individual will be held accountable for their actions.

Islam encourages a view of humanity as an interconnected community (Ummah), where relationships between individuals are founded on fraternity, justice, and solidarity. Islamic teachings emphasize the collective responsibility of believers towards God's creation, promoting environmental preservation, social justice, and benevolence towards others.

Islamic theology addresses complex questions such as predestination, divine will, and the nature of God. These theological debates add nuances to the understanding of faith and reality. Sufism, a mystical dimension of Islam, explores the pursuit of inner knowledge and unity with God. Sufis approach the complexity of spiritual experience through metaphors and symbols.

Light is often used as a metaphor in Islamic texts to represent knowledge, divine guidance, and spiritual understanding.

Buddhism

Buddhism, a spiritual and philosophical tradition originating from the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha), offers a unique perspective on complexity, interconnectedness, and scale, with a particular emphasis on the nature of reality, suffering, and the quest for enlightenment.

Buddhism emphasizes the concept of Pratītyasamutpāda, often translated as "interdependence" or "conditioned co-arising." According to this principle, all phenomena are interconnected and dependent on each other. Nothing has an independent existence. This perspective underscores a holistic view of reality, where each element of existence is linked to others, creating a complex network of relationships.

Buddhism teaches anatta (absence of a permanent self) and anicca, highlighting the impermanent nature of all things. This understanding contributes to complexity by showing that reality is constantly evolving. The Buddhist vision invites perceiving life as a continuous flow, without fixed endpoints, where everything is in constant transition.

The primary goal of Buddhism is the attainment of enlightenment (Nirvana), which liberates from suffering. This can be considered a personal scale of transcendence, where the individual rises beyond the condition of suffering. Buddhist philosophy questions the notion of a permanent self, inviting individuals to explore the nature of the ego and understand their existence on a deeper scale.

Compassion towards all living beings is a central principle of Buddhism. Understanding social interconnectedness contributes to a compassionate and caring approach towards others. Buddhist teachings encourage collective responsibility towards the suffering of the world, prompting positive action for the well-being of all beings.

Meditative practice in Buddhism, such as Vipassana meditation, encourages mindful observation of reality. This allows for a profound understanding of mental processes and the nature of experience. Buddhist meditation offers a personal scale of consciousness, inviting individuals to explore the depths of their mind to attain a deeper understanding of reality.

Buddhism proposes a non-dualistic perspective, transcending apparent oppositions. This vision contributes to a complex understanding of reality beyond apparent dualities. By encouraging the transcendence of dualities, Buddhism offers a path to harmony with the inherent complexity of life.

Taoism

Taoism, a philosophical and spiritual tradition originating from ancient China, offers a unique perspective on complexity, interconnectedness, and the nature of the cosmos.

In Taoism, the Tao (道) is the fundamental principle that underlies and transcends everything. It is often translated as "the Way" or "the Path." The Tao represents the ultimate, indescribable, and ineffable essence that gives rise to all things.

Taoism offers a vision of reality that highlights the dynamic complexity of the cosmos, encouraging harmony, spontaneity, and acceptance of the ever-changing nature of all things. The duality of Yin and Yang, the concept of Wu Wei, and the power of emptiness are all aspects that enrich the understanding of complexity in the Taoist context.

The Tao is inherently complex, surpassing categorizations and fixed definitions. It is simultaneously simple and complex, underscoring the paradoxical nature of reality.

Taoism uses the concept of Yin and Yang to represent the opposing and complementary forces that interact in the universe. Yin is associated with passivity, darkness, and the feminine, while Yang is associated with activity, light, and the masculine. Taoism teaches that Yin and Yang are not opposing forces in conflict but rather complementary forces that coexist and interact to maintain the dynamic balance of the universe.

The concept of Wu Wei, often translated as "non-action" or "effortless action," emphasizes the natural spontaneity that arises when the individual is in harmony with the Tao. Wu Wei suggests that true effectiveness emerges when conscious effort is abandoned and one merges with the natural harmony of the cosmos, highlighting the complexity of achieving balance without force.

Taoism places particular importance on emptiness, symbolized by the concept of Wu. Emptiness is considered a potential and creative state from which all things emerge. Taoism values silence and meditation, suggesting that in quietude and stillness, one can perceive the subtle movement of the Tao and understand the complexity of the universe.

The idea of Ziran, often translated as "letting things be" or "naturalness," encourages acceptance of things as they are, without excessive resistance. By embracing Ziran, Taoism offers an approach to existence that accepts the inherent complexity of life and allows things to follow their natural course.

Taoism advocates for a deep harmony with nature. This vision underscores the complexity of the relationships between living beings and their environment, urging respect and alignment with natural cycles. Taoism values simplicity through non-attachment to rigid definitions. Reality is perceived as both simple and complex, and its understanding often requires transcending limited conceptions.

These spiritual traditions, including Islam, Buddhism, and Taoism, offer diverse perspectives on the complexity, interconnectedness, and scale of existence. Each tradition presents unique insights into the nature of reality, human experience, and the cosmos, inviting contemplation and reflection on the profound mysteries of life. Through their teachings and practices, they contribute to a richer understanding of the complexities inherent in the universe and offer guidance on how to navigate the intricate tapestry of existence.

Concluding about religions

In examining the intersection of religions and complexity, we uncover a rich tapestry of theological reflection on the intricate dynamics of existence. Across diverse religious traditions, from ancient mythologies to contemporary faiths, we encounter profound insights into the nature of complexity and its spiritual dimensions.

Throughout history, religions have grappled with the complexity of human experience, offering narratives, symbols, and rituals that illuminate the interconnectedness of all things. From the intricate cosmologies of Hinduism and Buddhism to the monotheistic doctrines of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, religious teachings explore the interplay of divine order and human agency within the complex tapestry of creation.

Moreover, religious traditions often emphasize the holistic interconnectedness of all beings, promoting an ethic of compassion, stewardship, and harmony with the natural world. Through rituals, prayers, and meditative practices, adherents seek to cultivate an awareness of the profound interconnectedness of life and the sacredness of all existence.

In contemplating the insights of religious wisdom, we find resonance with contemporary efforts to understand and navigate the complexities of our world. Religious teachings offer timeless principles and ethical frameworks that speak to the inherent interconnectedness of humanity and the broader cosmos.

As we engage with the complexities of our existence, let us draw inspiration from the spiritual insights of religious traditions, recognizing their enduring relevance in guiding us toward a deeper understanding of the mysteries of existence and our interconnected place within the cosmos. Through dialogue and mutual respect, may we glean wisdom from diverse religious perspectives, fostering a shared reverence for the complexity and beauty of the universe.

Yogic sciences

Yogic science, also known as Yoga, is a holistic system of practices originating from ancient India. It encompasses various physical, mental, and spiritual disciplines aimed at achieving harmony and balance within oneself and with the surrounding environment. The word "yoga" itself comes from the Sanskrit word meaning union or yoke, signifying the union of body, mind, and spirit.

Yoga is often associated with physical postures or asanas, but it is much more than just physical exercise. It includes techniques for breath control (pranayama), concentration and meditation (dhyana), ethical principles (yamas and niyamas), and philosophical understanding (such as the concepts of karma and dharma).

Yogic science views the human being as a multidimensional entity consisting of physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual aspects, and its practices aim to integrate and balance all these dimensions. Through regular practice, individuals can experience various benefits, including improved physical health, increased mental clarity and focus, reduced stress and anxiety, enhanced emotional well-being, and a deeper sense of connection with oneself and others.

An emerging effort exists to combine the principles of yogic sciences with engineering to develop what is known as a "oneness theory." This interdisciplinary endeavor involves collaboration among scholars, researchers, and practitioners from diverse fields, including yoga, neuroscience, psychology, philosophy, physics, and engineering. The aim is to integrate insights from Eastern wisdom traditions, particularly yogic sciences, with concepts and methodologies from Western scientific disciplines.

At its core, the oneness theory explores the interconnectedness of consciousness and connectivity at individual and collective levels. It seeks to bridge ancient wisdom with modern knowledge to understand the underlying unity of existence and develop practical applications for addressing contemporary challenges.

This collaborative effort involves developing holistic solutions that promote individual and collective well-being while fostering harmony with the environment. It may lead to the design of technologies and interventions inspired by yogic practices to enhance physical health, mental clarity, emotional resilience, and social connectivity. Additionally, it may inform the development of sustainable engineering practices that prioritize ecological integrity, social equity, and ethical considerations.

The integration of yogic principles into engineering designs and systems has broad applications across various domains, including healthcare, education, sustainability, and artificial intelligence. By combining ancient wisdom with modern science and technology, the oneness theory aims to create a more compassionate, inclusive, and harmonious world.

The article "From Mindfulness to Oneness: “Inner Engineering” of the Complex Adaptive Human System" I give as a reference in the article illustrate such an effort and point out the idea of "Oneness".

Oneness, illustrated by the following picture, may appear similar to holism in emphasizing interconnectedness and unity. However it carries a spiritual or metaphysical connotation, whereas holism is a broader conceptual framework used across various disciplines to understand the interconnectedness of systems.

Let's note that the introduction yogic sciences in this article came from exchanges with Roy Roebuck about the initial version of this article, sharing his thinking concerning oneness (you kind find a link on our exchanges giving a link to some slides)

Review of Current Trends Related to Complexity Complexity

System Thinking

Complexity is in vogue, and today "System Thinking" is promoted, sometimes disregarding what already exists and provides solid foundations, whether it be related to the way religions or philosophers explain the world, or to the developments in mathematics and computer science. From Systemic Thinking to System Modeling Systemic Thinking "Systemic thinking" is a general term that encompasses different approaches and methodologies aimed at understanding complex systems. It focuses on the interconnection of elements within a system, the interactions between these elements, and understanding the system as a whole. Systemic thinking can be applied in various fields, including science, management, sociology, and other disciplines. It is worth noting, however, that "systemic thinking" has not generated a single, specific, and consolidated scientific theory. Instead, "system thinking" is more of a set of approaches, methodologies, and concepts that emphasize understanding complex systems and their functioning. However, there are developments in the field of formal languages and models aimed at capturing the complexity of systems and modeling them accurately. These developments are often interdisciplinary, drawing on concepts from computer science, mathematics, systems engineering, dynamic systems theory, and other related fields, such as:

• Dynamic Systems Theory: It proposes mathematical models to study the dynamic behavior of systems over time. These models are often used in fields such as biology, physics, economics, and meteorology.
• Complex Networks: Complex network theory studies the structure and behavior of networks, whether social, biological, or technological. Graphical models and formal languages are used to describe interactions within these networks.
• Agent-Based Modeling: This approach uses autonomous agents to represent individual entities in a system. Interactions between these agents are formalized to study the emergent behaviors of the overall system.
• Cellular Automata Theory: Cellular automata are discrete models composed of cells that evolve according to predefined rules. They are used to study emergent phenomena and complexity in various fields.
• System Modeling Languages: Some modeling languages, such as System Dynamics (used in the context of system dynamics), SysML (System Modeling Language), and others, are designed to represent complex systems and facilitate modeling.

Back to basic definitions

Although these approaches and languages do not specifically originate from "system thinking," they share fundamental principles with this approach by seeking to understand and model complex systems formally and precisely. However, it is important to note that research in this field is constantly evolving, and new theories and formal languages may emerge over time.

Personally, I tend not to seriously consider any approach that does not rely on or cannot rely on solid mathematical theories and software solutions that can be aided by the computer, as current complexity exceeds the capacities of an ordinary person or a group of people collaborating in the current context.

Finally, there are communities of practice in system engineering today, and we see emerging standards and standards relating to complex industrial system engineering, supported by modeling (Model Based System Engineering or MBSE). In parallel, approaches to the urbanization of enterprise information systems, evolving towards enterprise architecture practices, have also evolved and can now rely on dedicated modeling languages and dedicated architecture frameworks.

Despite existing standardized practices and tools, there are still scientific barriers requiring the evolution of the state of the art and the concepts required to better manage this complexity, relying on bases related to holistic approaches, mereology or systemic. It is interesting to survey the landscape to redefine these terms and specify what they refer to before surveying off-the-shelf solutions.

• Complexity is a multidimensional concept used in various fields to describe systems, phenomena, or ideas characterized by numerous, interconnected, and interdependent elements. The precise definition of complexity may vary depending on the specific context in which the term is used. A general definition that encompasses several aspects of the concept could be as follows: complexity refers to the presence of multiple components, relations, variables, or elements in a system, making its behavior difficult to predict or understand exhaustively. It often involves nonlinear interactions, emergence of new properties from the interaction of parts, and sensitivity to initial conditions. Furthermore, complexity can also be associated with notions such as diversity, adaptability, resilience, and the ability to evolve over time. Complex systems can be observed in areas such as biology, computer science, economics, sociology, ecology, and other disciplines where multiple elements interact to create dynamic structures and behaviors. Understanding complexity often requires interdisciplinary approaches, formal models, and recognition of the inherent uncertainty in complex systems.
• Systemics is a scientific approach that studies complex systems and their interactions. It emphasizes understanding the relationships between the elements of a system and how these relationships influence the behavior of the system as a whole (Joel de Rosnay, the Macroscope).
• The term "holistic" comes from the Greek word "holos," meaning "whole" or "entire." It refers to an approach that considers a system as a whole, rather than dividing it into independent parts. The idea is that the whole is more than the sum of its parts, and to truly understand a phenomenon, it is necessary to consider all its interactions and components.
• The concept of "holon" was introduced by the philosopher Arthur Koestler. A holon is a unit that is both a whole and a part of another whole. In other words, a holon is an entity that possesses both autonomy and interdependence. For example, a cell is a holon because it is both an autonomous entity with its own functions, and it is also part of a larger organism.
• A holarchy is a hierarchical structure composed of holons, which are entities that are simultaneously wholes and parts. In a holarchy, each holon exists within a larger context while also containing smaller holons within itself. This concept describes how systems organize themselves in a nested hierarchy of levels, where each level is composed of holons that exhibit both autonomy and integration within the larger system. Holarchies are dynamic and self-organizing, with interactions occurring both within and between levels, contributing to the complexity and emergence of phenomena in various domains such as biology, sociology, and ecology.
• Mereology is a branch of philosophy that studies the relationships between parts and the whole. It examines how the parts of a set interact to form the whole and how the whole influences the parts. In other words, mereology is concerned with the structure of sets and how the parts are connected to form larger entities.
• Mereotopology is a branch of formal philosophy that deals with the study of spatial and topological relations between the parts of a whole. It combines elements of mereology, which examines the relationship between parts and the whole, with concepts from topology, which examines the properties of shapes and spaces. Specifically, mereotopology explores how the parts of a set are related in terms of spatial position, connections, and topological relations. It addresses questions such as the boundary between parts, the relations of contact, and how parts can be integrated into a whole in terms of spatial structure.
• The notion of decomposition is closely related to systemics, and these two concepts are often used together to understand and model complex systems. Here's how they interact. Systemics takes a holistic view of systems, considering the system as a whole rather than just the sum of its parts. This means that systemics seeks to understand the relationships and interactions between the constituent elements of a system. Decomposition, on the other hand, involves breaking down a complex system into smaller parts, called components or elements.

Analytical decomposition

The analytical decomposition approach is often used to analyze in detail the functioning of each component, which can facilitate understanding of the overall system. Decomposition can be seen as an analytical step within the systemic approach. Once a system has been identified and defined as a whole, decomposition allows for the detailed analysis of individual components. This in-depth analysis of the parts then contributes to a deeper understanding of the interactions and relationships that exist between them. After performing decomposition and analyzing the parts, systemics often encourages a recomposition of these elements to obtain a complete understanding of the system as a whole. That is, one looks at how the parts interact and contribute to t he emergence of properties of the global system.

This approach, although useful in many cases, has certain limitations, especially when applied to complex systems. Here are some common limitations associated with analytical decomposition in the context of complex systems:

1. Loss of Holistic Vision: By focusing on individual parts, there may be a tendency to lose sight of the overall system. Interactions and emergent effects occurring at the scale of the overall system may not be fully understood if one restricts oneself to too deep a decomposition.
2. Nonlinear Interactions: Complex systems are often characterized by nonlinear interactions, meaning that effects are not proportional to causes. Analytical decomposition may not fully grasp these nonlinear interactions, as it often relies on linear models to simplify analysis.
3. Emergence of New Properties: Some complex systems may exhibit emergent properties that are not directly derived from the individual characteristics of their components. Analytical decomposition may not be adequate to explain these emergent properties.
4. Difficulty in Modeling Causal Relationships: In some complex systems, causal relationships may be difficult to establish. Analytical decomposition may not be sufficient to model these relationships exhaustively.
5. Limitations of Mathematical Models: Analytical decomposition often involves the use of mathematical models to represent the parts of the system. However, these models may be simplifying and may not capture all the nuances and real complexity of the system. Challenges Related to Complexity Management: Managing complexity can become a challenge when decomposing a complex system into many parts. Coordination and understanding of the whole can become difficult as the number of components increases.

To overcome these limitations, it is often necessary to adopt a mixed approach that combines analytical decomposition with a holistic view. This involves recognizing the interdependent relationships between parts while seeking to understand the emergence of properties of the global system. Advanced modeling and simulation methods can also be used to address the complexity of systems.

Systems of Systems

System of Systems (SoS) theory is indeed an approach that seeks to address some of the limitations associated with analytical decomposition when applied to complex systems. System of Systems theory considers a complex system as part of a larger system, where each subsystem may have its own characteristics and interact with other subsystems.

It can help overcome some of the limitations already mentioned earlier for analytical decomposition:

• Providing a Holistic Vision: System of Systems theory promotes a holistic view by recognizing that individual systems are themselves components of larger systems. This allows for maintaining an overall perspective while considering the details of subsystems.
• Considering Nonlinear Interactions: By considering interactions between subsystems, System of Systems theory can better account for nonlinear interactions that may occur at the level of the overall system.
• Considering the Emergence of New Properties: System of Systems theory helps better understand how emergent properties can manifest at the scale of the overall system by considering complex interactions between subsystems.
• Modeling Causal Relationships: By examining relationships between individual systems, System of Systems theory seeks to model the causal relationships that exist between subsystems.
• Supporting Complexity Coordination and Management: By recognizing individual systems as elements of a larger system, System of Systems theory provides a structure for coordinating and managing complexity at different scales.
• Distinguishing between complicated systems (on which analytical decomposition and Cartesian approach can be used) from complex systems. In this regard, it is interesting to consider the Cynefin approach, for which I wrote a dedicated article.
• Dealing with virtualization which broke the boundaries of the systems and sub systems. I wrote dedicated research papers and articles on this topic

However, it is important to note that System of Systems theory is not a universal solution, and it can also pose challenges in terms of managing complexity on an even larger scale. Modeling and analyzing systems of systems may require advanced approaches and specific tools to be fully effective. Overall, System of Systems theory represents a significant conceptual advancement for addressing the inherent complexity of complex systems.

System Engineering

System Engineering is an interdisciplinary, holistic, and collaborative approach to designing, implementing, and managing complex systems. It integrates methods, tools, and processes to address all dimensions of a system, including technical, organizational, and environmental aspects throughout the system's life cycle. System Engineering aims to ensure that all parts of a system work harmoniously together to achieve the project's overall goals. This involves managing requirements, modeling and analyzing systems, design, verification and validation, as well as configuration and life cycle management. The System Engineering approach focuses on finding global and integrated solutions, taking into account the complex interactions between a system's components and their impact on the broader environment. It encourages collaboration among different disciplines involved in the development of a system, thereby fostering a common understanding of the project's objectives and constraints.

Standard Frameworks of System Engineering What is a Framework A framework is a conceptual or organizational structure that provides a systematic and coherent approach to addressing problems, designing solutions, or conducting activities in a particular domain. It may include principles, methods, processes, models, standards, and other elements that help guide and facilitate decision-making and action in a specific context. It may (but not necessarily):

• Organize concepts, methods, and processes in a structured manner to provide a clear and logical understanding.
• Provide guidelines and recommendations to help make informed decisions and solve problems effectively.
• Be adaptable to different contexts and be adjusted according to the specific needs of a situation.
• Be reusable in different situations, offering a standardized approach to similar problems.
• Integrate industry standards, models, and other elements to promote consistency and interoperability.
• Be interdisciplinary, bringing together concepts and methods from multiple domains to solve complex problems.
• Cover the entire life cycle of a project or system, from design to decommissioning.
• Be specific to a particular domain, such as system engineering, project management, or enterprise architecture, or it may be more general and applicable to various contexts. In any case, it serves as a structured guide to orient practices and decisions in a specific domain.

Some Frameworks in the Field of System Engineering Here are some frameworks and models used in system engineering to guide the design, implementation, and management of complex systems.

• MODAF (Ministry of Defence Architecture Framework): MODAF is an architecture framework used primarily in the defense domain. It provides concepts and practices for modeling the architecture of complex systems.
• DoDAF (Department of Defense Architecture Framework): DoDAF is an architecture framework intended for use by the United States Department of Defense. It offers guidelines for developing system and enterprise architectures.
• TOGAF (The Open Group Architecture Framework): TOGAF is an enterprise architecture framework that can be applied to system engineering. It provides guidance for organizing and structuring enterprise architecture, including the system part.
• V-Model: The V-model is a development approach that maps each stage of the development process to a corresponding test. It helps ensure consistency between phases of the system's life cycle. Agile Systems Engineering: Inspired by agile methodologies, Agile Systems Engineering applies to system engineering to enable increased flexibility and rapid responses to changes in project requirements.
• MBSE (Model-Based Systems Engineering): MBSE is an approach based on creating and using models to support system engineering activities. It aims to improve communication, understanding, and management of complex systems. Scrum: Scrum is an agile framework often used in software development, but it can also be applied to system engineering. It promotes short and iterative development cycles.
• SAFe (Scaled Agile Framework): Originally designed to scale agile practices in large organizations, SAFe can also be adapted to system engineering, especially in complex environments.
• UAF (Unified Architecture Framework): UAF is an architecture framework that offers an integrated approach to system modeling and design. It is designed to be adaptable to different domains and industries. UAF builds on industry best practices and integrates elements from other architecture frameworks, such as DoDAF and MODAF.
• NAF (NATO Architecture Framework): NAF is specifically designed to meet the needs of NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization). It provides guidelines for developing system and information system architectures within NATO. NAF is based on concepts from system engineering and other architecture frameworks.
• ISO 15288: ISO 15288 is an international standard that provides a framework for the system engineering process. It specifies the processes and activities required to develop and maintain systems. The standard covers the entire life cycle of a system, from design to realization, operation, maintenance, and decommissioning. ISO 15288 offers a systematic approach to system engineering, focusing on process management and consideration of the different perspectives of the system, including technical, organizational, and operational aspects.
• ISO/IEC 42010: ISO/IEC 42010, also known as IEEE Std 42010, is an international standard that defines a framework for architecture description. It provides guidelines for describing, organizing, and visualizing a system's architecture, including aspects of system engineering and software engineering. This standard focuses on modeling and documenting architecture, providing principles for representing views and viewpoints, as well as recommendations for organizing and managing architectural information.

Each framework has its own advantages and is suited to specific contexts. The choice of a framework often depends on the nature of the project, goals, and organizational preferences.

Benefits of Using Frameworks in System Engineering:

1. Structured Approach: Frameworks provide a structured approach to system engineering, helping teams organize their efforts and activities in a logical and systematic manner.
2. Guidance and Best Practices: Frameworks offer guidance based on best practices in the field, drawing from the collective knowledge and experience of experts. This helps teams avoid common pitfalls and make informed decisions.
3. Interoperability: Many frameworks aim to promote interoperability by providing common standards and languages for describing systems. This facilitates communication and collaboration between different stakeholders involved in the development process.
4. Consistency and Reusability: By providing standardized processes and methods, frameworks promote consistency across projects and organizations. They also encourage the reuse of successful practices and artifacts, saving time and effort.
5. Risk Reduction: Frameworks often include risk management practices, helping teams identify, assess, and mitigate risks throughout the system development life cycle. This contributes to overall project success and reduces the likelihood of costly failures.
6. Scalability and Adaptability: Frameworks are designed to be scalable and adaptable to different project sizes, complexities, and domains. Teams can tailor the framework to suit their specific needs while retaining its core principles and structure.
7. Improved Stakeholder Communication: By providing clear models and documentation, frameworks improve communication between stakeholders with different backgrounds and perspectives. This fosters a shared understanding of the system and its requirements.
8. Continuous Improvement: Many frameworks emphasize iterative and feedback-driven approaches, enabling continuous improvement over time. Teams can learn from past experiences and adapt their practices to evolving challenges and opportunities.

Challenges and Considerations

While frameworks offer numerous benefits, they also present challenges and considerations that organizations should be aware of:

1. Complexity: Some frameworks may be complex and require significant investment in training and implementation. Organizations must carefully evaluate the costs and benefits of adopting a particular framework.
2. Overhead: Implementing a framework may introduce overhead in terms of time, resources, and bureaucracy. Teams should strive to strike a balance between the benefits of structure and the need for flexibility and agility.
3. Resistance to Change: Introducing a new framework may encounter resistance from team members accustomed to existing practices. Change management efforts are essential to facilitate the adoption of new processes and methods.
4. Tailoring and Customization: While frameworks provide a foundation for system engineering activities, they may need to be tailored or customized to fit the specific context and requirements of a project or organization.
5. Integration with Existing Practices: Organizations may already have established practices and methodologies in place. It's important to consider how a new framework will integrate with existing processes and tools to minimize disruption.
6. Tooling and Infrastructure: Frameworks often rely on specialized tools and infrastructure to support their implementation. Organizations should evaluate the availability and suitability of these tools before committing to a particular framework.
7. Maintenance and Evolution: Frameworks evolve over time in response to changes in technology, industry standards, and best practices. Organizations must allocate resources for the ongoing maintenance and evolution of their chosen framework.

In summary, while frameworks play a valuable role in guiding system engineering activities, organizations should approach their adoption with careful consideration of the associated benefits, challenges, and trade-offs. By selecting the right framework and implementing it effectively, organizations can improve their ability to develop and manage complex systems successfully.

Conclusion about technical dimension ofc complexity

In delving into the technical realm of complexity, we traverse a landscape of interdisciplinary inquiry, where mathematics, computer science, and systems theory converge to illuminate the intricate dynamics of complex systems.

From the theoretical foundations of systems thinking to the practical applications of modeling languages like UML, SysML, and ArchiMate, we encounter a rich array of tools and methodologies for understanding and managing complexity in various domains.

Through the lens of system dynamics, network theory, agent-based modeling, and cellular automata, we gain insight into the underlying principles governing complex systems' behavior and emergence. These formal languages and models provide a means to capture the intricacies of interconnected systems, from biological networks to social structures and technological systems.

Moreover, the emergence of Model-Based Systems Engineering (MBSE) and standards like ISO 15288 offers a structured approach to system design, integration, and lifecycle management. By leveraging advanced modeling techniques and simulation tools, engineers can address the challenges posed by complex systems, ensuring coherence, interoperability, and resilience across the entire system lifecycle.

As we navigate the complexities of modern technology and industry, let us embrace the insights of systems theory and modeling languages, harnessing their power to tackle real-world challenges and drive innovation. Through interdisciplinary collaboration and a commitment to continuous learning, we can unlock new possibilities for understanding and harnessing the inherent complexity of our interconnected world.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the exploration of complexity as reflected by this article not only reveals its intertwined nature with various facets of human knowledge and understanding but also underscores the need for reconciliation among different realms of human experience. From the philosophical and religious domains to the technical and mystical spheres, each offers unique insights into the nature of complexity and its manifestations in our world. Luc Ferry's analysis of Greek mythology illustrates how science and religion were intricately linked in ancient Greece, reflecting humanity's complex relationship with the world. Such considerations highlight the potential for dialogue and synthesis among diverse perspectives, enriching our understanding of complexity and its implications. By reconciling social, technical, religious, and mystical dimensions, we can cultivate a more holistic approach to addressing the challenges and opportunities posed by complexity, fostering greater harmony and cooperation in our collective endeavors.

Moreover, we've underscored the significance of system thinking, system engineering practices and underlying frameworks, navigating today's intricate industrial landscapes practices. Through these tools, we strive to grasp the interconnectedness of elements within complex systems, drawing upon centuries of philosophical inquiry and literary exploration to inform current approaches dealing with complexity.

Don't hesitate to reach, comment, sharing your view and experience, for contributing to the next version of this article;)

References

Author's note: TBC feel free to suggest relevant and inspiring works

The Part and the Whole [Der Teil und das Ganze]

The World of Atomic Physics (Memories, 1920-1965) by Werner Heisenberg, New corrected edition in 2016, EAN: 9782081375628 ISBN: 9782081375628 "Science is done by people. This fact, obvious in itself, is easily forgotten; perhaps it is useful to recall it." In his fascinating intellectual autobiography, Werner Heisenberg, one of the greatest scientists of the 20th century, retraces through recovered conversations the evolution of physics as he experienced it, from his first encounters with atomic theory (1919-1920) to the discoveries of new elementary particles (1961-1965). We encounter Wolfgang Pauli hiking in the Bavarian Alps, Niels Bohr immersed in his work, discussions with Einstein... Born in Germany, Heisenberg did not leave the country during World War II. These pages also offer valuable insights into university life in Nazi Germany, the plight of Jewish physicists forced to emigrate, the uncertainty of others, their confusion, and the atmosphere of German universities in those dark years. Written in a simple and lively manner, these chapters provide an extraordinary introduction to the great scientific problems of our century and a fascinating history book.

From Mindfulness to Oneness: “Inner Engineering” of the Complex Adaptive Human System

Authors:Tracy F. Chang,Duysal Askun Celik and Suzanne Klatt

Published Online:9 Jul 2018 https://doi.org/10.5465/AMBPP.2018.11819abstract

Utilizing the frameworks of systems theory and transdisciplinarity, the authors construct a theoretical framework for Inner Engineering and oneness, highlighting their significance in human decision-making and organizational functioning. They propose avenues for further research to expand beyond existing mindfulness scholarship in business towards embracing the transformative potential of yogic meditation through the Inner Engineering approach.