COMPARISION OF SODIUM-ION BATTERIES WITH LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES, CURRENT STATUS, CHALLENGES AND APPLICATIONS
vijay tharad
Director Operations at Corporate Professional Academy for Technical Training & Career Development
Sodium-ion batteries (NIBs, SIBs, or Na-ion batteries) are several types of rechargeable batteries, which use sodium ions (Na+) as its charge carriers. In some cases, its working principle and cell construction are similar to those of lithium-ion battery (LIB) types, but it replaces lithium with sodium as the intercalating ion. Sodium belongs to the same group in the periodic table as lithium and thus has similar chemical properties. Although, in some cases (such as aqueous Na-ion batteries) they are quite different from Li-ion batteries.
SIBs received academic and commercial interest in the 2010s and early 2020s, largely due to the uneven geographic distribution, high environmental impact, and high cost of lithium. An obvious advantage of sodium is its natural abundance, particularly in saltwater. Another factor is that cobalt, copper and nickel are not required for many types of sodium-ion batteries, and more abundant iron-based materials (such as NaFeO2 with the Fe3+/Fe4+ redox pair) work well in Na+ batteries. This is because the ionic radius of Na+ (116 pm) is substantially larger than that of Fe2+ and Fe3+ (69–92 pm depending on the spin state), whereas the ionic radius of Li+ is similar (90 pm). Similar ionic radii of lithium and iron result in their mixing in the cathode material during battery cycling, and a resultant loss of cycleable charge. A downside of the larger ionic radius of Na+ is a slower intercalation kinetics of sodium-ion electrode materials.
The development of Na+ batteries started in the 1990s. After three decades of development, NIBs are at a critical moment of commercialization. Several companies such as HiNa and CATL in China, Faradion in the United Kingdom, Tiamat in France, Northvolt in Sweden, and Natron Energy in the US, are close to achieving the commercialization of NIBs, with the aim of employing sodium layered transition metal oxides (NaxTMO2), Prussian white (a Prussain blue analogue) or vanadium phosphate as cathode materials.
Electric vehicles using sodium-ion battery packs are not yet commercially available. However, CATL , the world's biggest lithium-ion battery manufacturer, announced in 2022 the start of mass production of SIBs. In February 2023, the Chinese HINA Batteries technology company, Ltd. placed a 140 Wh/kg sodium-ion battery in an electric test car for the first time, and energy storage manufacturer Pylontech obtained the first sodium-ion battery certificate from TUV Rheinland
History
Sodium-ion battery
A sodium-ion battery (SIB) is one of the options for Lithium ion battery. Because of the comparatively high amount of sodium sources in the earth's encrustation and seawater, as well as its relatively inexpensive manufacturing costs, SIB has recently gained a lot of interest as a promising commercial choice for large-scale energy storage systems. Furthermore, because sodium belongs to the same periodic table group as lithium and has similar physicochemical qualities, Sodium-ion battery's operating mechanism is extremely similar to Lithium-ion battery's.
Lithium and sodium are parts of the periodic table's elements in group 1. They are known as alkali metals, because their valence shell has one loosely held electron. As a result, alkali metals are extremely reactive, hardness, conductivity, melting point, and initial ionization energy fall as their progress through the group?. Table 1 summarizes some of the characteristics of sodium and lithium that interest in their development. The redox potential of the two alkali elements is one of the most important things to compare. The standard Na+/Na reduction potential vs. SHE is ? 2.71?V, which is roughly 330?mV higher than Li+/Li, which is ? 3.04?V. SIB's anodic electrode potential will always be greater than LIB's since this potentially specifies a thermodynamics minimum for the anode. However, because the ionic radius of Na (1.02) is much larger than that of Li (0.76), finding suitable crystalline host materials for Na+ with sufficient capacity and cycling stability may be more difficult?.
Similar as LIB, an SIB cell consists of a cathode, anode, and electrolyte. The cathode in SIB is made of a substance that can absorb Na cations reversibly at voltages significantly higher than 2?V positive for Na metal. The best anodes are those with low voltages (less than 2?V vs. Na). The active cathode material commonly used is NaFeO2 and the negative electrode or anode is hard carbon. Throughout charging, the cathode (NaFeO2) will donate electrons to the external circuit, which can cause oxidation for the transition metal. Some of the added sodium atoms dissolve as ions in the electrolyte to maintain charge neutrality. They travel to the anode (hard carbon) and are incorporated into the structure to restore charge neutrality to the site, which was disrupted by electrons transmitted and absorbed from the cathode side. During discharge, the procedure is iterated in the opposite direction. This complete cycle of reactions happens in a closed system. Each electron produced during oxidation is consumed in the reduction reaction at the opposite electrode.. Figure?2 shows the entire procedure diagrammatically.
The chemistry and electrochemistry of electrode materials for Na-ion batteries are sufficiently different from that of their Li-ion counterparts that candidates suitable for practical batteries have become available only recently. Figure 1 displays the schematic of a Na-ion battery cell. It has a structure similar to that of Li-ion batteries. Laboratory test cells and representative prototype cells have been built and evaluated with hard-carbon anodes and cathode materials selected from layered transition metal oxides, transition metal fluorophosphates, and Prussian blue and its analogues.
Layered transition metal dioxides, NaMO2, where M = Fe, Ni, Mn, Co etc., exist in O3 and P2 crystallographic versions. In the O3-NaMO2 phase, Na resides in octahedral sites, while in the P2-phase Na is in prismatic sites.
The electrode reactions in a Na-ion battery utilizing hard-carbon (C6) anode and a layered transition metal oxide, NaMO2, cathode are depicted in equation 1. The discharged electrodes are on the right-hand side of equation 1.
Sodium-ion battery development took place in the 1970s and early 1980s. However, by the 1990s, lithium-ion batteries had demonstrated more commercial promise, causing interest in sodium-ion batteries to decline. In the early 2010s, sodium-ion batteries experienced a resurgence, driven largely by the increasing cost of lithium-ion battery raw materials.
Operating principle
SIB cells consist of a cathode based on a sodium-based material, an anode (not necessarily a sodium-based material) and a liquid electrolyte containing dissociated sodium salts in polar protic or aprotic solvents. During charging, sodium ions move from the cathode to the anode while electrons travel through the external circuit. During discharge, the reverse process occurs.
Sodium-Ion
Sodium-ion batteries operate analogously to lithium-ion batteries, with both chemistries relying on the intercalation of ions between host structures. In addition, sodium based cell construction is almost identical with those of the commercially widespread lithium-ion battery types. However, sodium-ion batteries are characterized by several fundamental differences with lithium-ion, bringing both advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages:
Three major families of materials for cathode chemistry options:
Cathode materials can be synthesized from more sustainable transition metals such as Fe, Cu or Mn co
Disadvantages:
Sodium-ion technology is not as well established as lithium-ion.
Sodium-ion Battery Materials
Many of the battery components in both sodium-ion and lithium-ion batteries are similar due to the similarities of the two technologies. This post provides a high-level overview for the constituent cell parts in Sodium-ion batteries.
Sodium-Ion Cell Characteristics
Hard Carbon Anodes in Sodium-ion
Sodium-Ion Degradation
Sodium Ion Battery Pack
This low cot battery technology is approaching fast with lots of announcements.
Achieving 120Wh/kg at pack level.
Cathode materials
Anode materials
Metallic anodes are also being researched for Na-ion batteries, although these are not yet being considered for commercial applications.
Electrolytes and Cell Components
Electrolytes of sodium ion batteries are typically made up of a metal salt dissolved in an organic solvent. Sodium salts such as NaClO4 and NaPF6 can be used. However, NaClO4 comes with the risk of explosion, while NaPF6 comes with the risk of reacting with water to generate toxic hydrogen fluoride. Organic solvents such as those used in Lithium-ion systems (e.g.: dimethyl carbonate) can be used.
Other cell constituents, separators, are analogous to those used in Li-ion systems. Note that aluminium can be used for both anode and cathode current collectors as sodium does not alloy with aluminium at lower voltages.
Materials
Due to the physical and electrochemical properties of sodium, SIBs require different materials from those used for LIBs.
Anodes
SIBs can use hard carbon, a disordered carbon material consisting of a non-graphitizable, non-crystalline and amorphous carbon. Hard carbon's ability to absorb sodium was discovered in 2000. This anode was shown to deliver 300 mAh/g with a sloping potential profile above ?0.15 V vs Na/Na+. It accounts for roughly half of the capacity and a flat potential profile (a potential plateau) below ?0.15 V vs Na/Na+. Such capacities are comparable to 300–360 mAh/g of graphite anodes in lithium-ion batteries.. The first sodium-ion cell using hard carbon was demonstrated in 2003 and showed a 3.7 V average voltage during discharge. Hard carbon was the preferred choice of Faradion due to its excellent combination of capacity, (lower) working potentials, and cycling stability. Notably, nitrogen-doped hard carbons display even larger specific capacity of 520 mAh/g at 20 mA/g with stability over 1000 cycles.
In 2015 researchers demonstrated that graphite could co-intercalate sodium in ether-based electrolytes. Low capacities around 100 mAh/g were obtained with relatively high working potentials between 0 – 1.2 V vs Na/Na+.
One drawback of carbonaceous materials is that, because their intercalation potentials are fairly negative, they are limited to non-aqueous systems.
Graphene
Graphene Janus particles have been used in experimental sodium-ion batteries to increase energy density. One side provides interaction sites while the other provides inter-layer separation. Energy density reached 337 mAh/g.
Carbon arsenide
Carbon arsenide(AsC5) mono/bilayer has been explored as an anode material due to high specific gravity (794/596mAh/g), low expansion(1.2%), and ultra low diffusion barrier (0.16/0.09eV), indicating rapid charge/discharge cycle capability, during sodium intercalation. After sodium adsorption, a carbon arsenide anode maintains structural stability at 300K, indication long cycle life.
Metal alloys
Numerous reports described anode materials storing sodium via alloy reaction and/or conversion reaction. Alloying sodium metal brings the benefits of regulating sodium-ion transport and shielding the accumulation of electric field at the tip of sodium dendrites. Wang, et al. reported that a self-regulating alloy interface of nickel antimony (NiSb) was chemically deposited on Na metal during discharge. This thin layer of NiSb regulates the uniform electrochemical plating of Na metal, lowering overpotential and offering dendrite-free plating/stripping of Na metal over 100 h at a high areal capacity of 10 mAh cm?2.
Metals
Many metals and semi-metals (Pb, P, Sn, Ge, etc.) form stable alloys with sodium at room temperature. Unfortunately, the formation of such alloys is usually accompanied by a large volume change, which in turn results in the pulverization (crumbling) of the material after a few cycles. For example, with tin sodium forms an alloy Na 15Sn 4, which is equivalent to 847 mAh/g specific capacity, with a resulting enormous volume change up to 420%.
In one study, Li et al. prepared sodium and metallic tin Na 15Sn 4/Na through a spontaneous reaction. This anode could operate at a high temperature of 90?°C (194?°F) in a carbonate solvent at 1 mA cm?2 with 1 mA h cm?2 loading, and the full cell exhibited a stable charge-discharge cycling for 100 cycles at a current density of 2C. (2C means that full charge or discharge was achieved in 0.5 hour). Despite sodium alloy's ability to operate at extreme temperatures and regulate dendritic growth, the severe stress-strain experienced on the material in the course of repeated storage cycles limits cycling stability, especially in large-format cells.
Researchers from Tokyo University of Science achieved 478 mAh/g with nano‐sized magnesium particles, announced in December 2020.
Oxides
Some sodium titanate phases such as Na2Ti3O7, or NaTiO2, delivered capacities around 90–180 mAh/g at low working potentials (< 1 V vs Na/Na+), though cycling stability was limited to a few hundred cycles.
Molybdenum disulphide
In 2021 researchers from China tried layered structure MoS 2 as a new type of anode for sodium-ion batteries. A dissolution-recrystallization process densely assembled carbon layer-coated MoS2 nanosheets onto the surface of polymide-derived N-doped carbon nanotubes. This kind of C-MoS2/NCNTs anode can store 348?mAh/g at 2?A/g, with a cycling stability of 82% capacity after 400 cycles at 1?A/g. TiS2 is another potential material for SIBs because of its layered structure, but has yet to overcome the problem of capacity fade, since TiS2 suffers from poor electrochemical kinetics and relatively weak structural stability. In 2021 researchers from Ningbo, China employed pre-potassiated TiS2, presenting rate capability of 165.9mAh/g and a cycling stability of 85.3% capacity after 500 cycles.
Other anodes for Na+
Some other materials, such as mercury, electroactive polymers and sodium terephthalate derivatives, have also been demonstrated in laboratories, but did not provoke commercial interest.
Cathodes
Oxides
Many layered transition metal oxides can reversibly intercalate sodium ions upon reduction. These oxides typically have a higher tap density and a lower electronic resistivity, than other posode materials (such as phosphates). Due to a larger size of the Na+ ion (116 pm) compared to Li+ ion (90 pm) , cation mixing between Na+ and first row transition metal ions usually does not occur. Thus, low-cost iron and manganese oxides can be used for Na-ion batteries, whereas Li-ion batteries require the use of more expensive cobalt and nickel oxides. The drawback of the larger size of Na+ ion is its slower intercalation kinetics compared to Li+ ion and the presence of multiple intercalation stages with different voltages and kinetic rates.
A P2-type Na2/3Fe1/2Mn1/2O2 oxide from earth-abundant Fe and Mn resources can reversibly store 190 mAh/g at average discharge voltage of 2.75 V vs Na/Na+ utilising the Fe3+/4+ redox couple – on par or better than commercial lithium-ion cathodes such as LiFePO4 or LiMn2O4. However, its sodium deficient nature lowered energy density. Significant efforts were expended in developing Na-richer oxides. A mixed P3/P2/O3-type Na0.76Mn0.5Ni0.3Fe0.1Mg0.1O2 was demonstrated to deliver 140 mAh/g at an average discharge voltage of 3.2 V vs Na/Na+ in 2015. In particular, the O3-type NaNi1/4Na1/6Mn2/12Ti4/12Sn1/12O2 oxide can deliver 160 mAh/g at average voltage of 3.22 V vs Na/Na+, while a series of doped Ni-based oxides of the stoichiometry NaaNi(1?x?y?z)MnxMgyTizO2 can deliver 157 mAh/g in a sodium-ion “full cell” with a hard carbon anode at average discharge voltage of 3.2 V utilising the Ni2+/4+ redox couple. Such performance in full cell configuration is better or on par with commercial lithium-ion systems. A Na0.67Mn1?xMgxO2 cathode material exhibited a discharge capacity of 175 mAh/g for Na0.67Mn0.95Mg0.05O2. This cathode contained only abundant elements. Copper-substituted Na0.67Ni0.3?xCuxMn0.7O2 cathode materials showed a high reversible capacity with better capacity retention. In contrast to the copper-free Na0.67Ni0.3?xCuxMn0.7O2 electrode, the as-prepared Cu-substituted cathodes deliver better sodium storage. However, cathodes with Cu are more expensive.
Oxoanions
Research has also considered cathodes based on oxoanions. Such cathodes offer lower tap density, lowering energy density than oxides. On the other hand, a stronger covalent bonding of the polyanion positively impacts cycle life and safety and increases the cell voltage. Among polyanion-based cathodes, sodium vanadium phosphate and fluorophosphate have demonstrated excellent cycling stability and in the latter, an acceptably high capacity (?120 mAh/g) at high average discharge voltages (?3.6 V vs Na/Na+). Besides that, sodium manganese silicate has also been demonstrated to deliver a very high capacity (>200 mAh/g) with decent cycling stability. A French startup TIAMAT develops Na+ ion batteries based on a sodium-vanadium-phosphate-fluoride cathode material Na3V2(PO4)2F3, which undergoes two reversible 0.5 e-/V transitions: at 3.2V and at 4.0 V. A startup from Singapore, SgNaPlus is developing and commercialising Na3V2(PO4)3 cathode material, which shows very good cycling stability, utilising the non-flammable glyme-based electrolyte.
Prussian blue and analogues
Numerous research groups investigated the use of Prussian blue and various Prussian blue analogues (PBAs) as cathodes for Na+-ion batteries. The ideal formula for a discharged material is Na2M[Fe(CN)6], and it corresponds to the theoretical capacity of ca. 170 mAh/g, which is equally split between two one-electron voltage plateaus. Such high specific charges are rarely observed only in PBA samples with a low number of structural defects.
For example, the patented rhombohedral Na2MnFe(CN)6 displaying 150–160 mAh/g in capacity and a 3.4 V average discharge voltage and rhombohedral Prussian white Na1.88(5)Fe[Fe(CN)6]·0.18(9)H2O displaying initial capacity of 158 mAh/g and retaining 90% capacity after 50 cycles.
While Ti, Mn, Fe and Co PBAs show a two-electron electrochemistry, the Ni PBA shows only one-electron (Ni is not electrochemically active in the accessible voltage range). Iron-free PBA Na2MnII[MnII(CN)6] is also known. It has a fairly large reversible capacity of 209 mAh/g at C/5, but its voltage is unfortunately low (1.8 V versus Na+/Na).
Electrolytes
Sodium-ion batteries can use aqueous and non-aqueous electrolytes. The limited electrochemical stability window of water results in lower voltages and limited energy densities. Non-aqueous carbonate ester polar aprotic solvents extend the voltage range. These include ethylene carbonate, dimethyl carbonate, , and propylene carbonate. The most widely used salts in non-aqueous electrolytes are NaClO4 and sodium hexafluorophosphate (NaPF6) dissolved in a mixture of these solvents. It is a well-established fact that these carbonate-based electrolytes are flammable, which pose safety concerns in large-scale applications. A type of glyme-based electrolyte, with sodium tetrafluoroborate as the salt is demonstrated to be non-flammable. In addition, NaTFSI (TFSI = bis(trifluoromethane)sulfonimide) and NaFSI (FSI = bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide, NaDFOB (DFOB = difluoro(oxalato)borate) and NaBOB (bis(oxalato)borate) anions have emerged lately as new interesting salts. Of course, electrolyte additives can be used as well to improve the performance metrics.
What Is Sodium Ion Battery (Na-Ion Battery) ?
It is a type of rechargeable battery that utilizes sodium ions (Na+) as the charge carriers between positive and negative electrodes. Similar to lithium-ion batteries, they are also designed to store and release electrical energy by moving ions back and forth between the electrodes during charging and discharging cycles. Let us derive advantages and disadvantages of sodium-ion batteries with respect to its construction and working principle.
The key components used in sodium-ion battery's construction are as follows. ??Positive Electrode (i.e. Cathode) : It is typically made of sodium containing material such as sodium iron phosphate (NaFePO4) or sodium nickel cobalt manganese oxide i.e. Na(NiCoMn)O2. During discharge cycle, sodium ions move from cathode to anode.
??Negative Electrode (i.e. Anode) : It is often made of material that can reversible include sodium ions such as hard carbon or graphite. During dicharging period, sodium ions move from anode to cathode.
??Liquid Electrolyte : This solution allows movement of sodium ions between cathode and anode. It plays critical role for overall performance and safety of the battery.
??Separator : It prevents direct contact between anode and cathode but allows passage of sodium ions and electrons during charge and discharge cycles.
Working Principle Of Sodium-Ion Battery
In this Na-Ion Battery, anode and cathode store sodium, while electrolyte carries charged ions from anode to the cathode and vice versa through separator.
The movement of sodium ions creates free electrons at the anode, which creates a charge at the positive current collector. The current then flows from the current collector through the device being powered by the battery, such as a smartphone, to the negative current collector.
The separator blocks the flow of electrons inside the battery. The anode releases sodium ions to the cathode during discharging period. This generates flow of electrons from one side to the other. Sodium ions move from the cathode to the anode during charging period, while electrons travel through the external circuit.
In the field of electrochemical energy storage and home energy storage, lithium-ion batteries occupy a dominant position, and China's installed capacity accounts for as high as 91%. However, with the continuous expansion of the lithium battery market, the contradiction of lithium resource shortage has gradually emerged. The sodium-ion battery has attracted much attention due to its advantages of abundant resources, low price, and high safety, and is an important supplement and strategic reserve for lithium-ion batteries.
1. Technical features and advantages of sodium ion batteries
Due to the rich content of sodium in nature, the upstream raw materials of sodium-ion batteries are relatively cheap, which can effectively supplement lithium-ion battery technology. At the cell level, the constituent elements of the cathode material for sodium-ion batteries are mainly Na, Cu, Fe, and Mn, all of which are relatively cheap and come from a wide range of sources. Compared lithium vs sodium battery, with the constituent elements Li, Ni, Co, etc. of lithium-ion battery cathode materials, the cost advantage of sodium battery is obvious.
The anode materials are mostly carbon-based materials, which are usually obtained by high-temperature carbonization using anthracite biomass, phenolic resin, etc. as precursors. The raw materials have a wide range of sources and low prices, and the carbonization process is simpler than the graphitization process of graphite anode. In terms of current collectors, cheaper aluminum foil can be used instead of copper foil, further reducing the cost of sodium-ion batteries.
In terms of working principle, sodium-ion batteries are similar to lithium-ion batteries. During charging, Na+ is extracted from the cathode material, passes through the electrolyte, passes through the separator, and is embedded in the anode material.
During the discharge process, Na+ is released from the anode material, and returns to the cathode material through the electrolyte and separator again. At the same time, during the charging and discharging process, the same number of electrons will be transferred in the external circuit to maintain the charge balance of the battery system.
Therefore, combined with the characteristics of the sodium-ion battery itself, it has the following characteristics and advantages:
● The production equipment of lithium-ion batteries can be used for the production of sodium-ion batteries after simple improvement, with less equipment and process investment, providing hardware support for the transformation from lithium batteries to sodium batteries;
● Compared with lithium ions, sodium ions have lower solvation energy, stronger interfacial ion diffusion ability, and higher ionic conductivity of the electrolyte. As a result, the rate performance of sodium-ion batteries is better, and high power input and output can be achieved;
● Sodium-ion batteries have better high and low temperature performance, and can work safely under wide temperature (-40°C~80°C) conditions;
● Sodium-ion batteries show good safety performance in the safety project test.
2. What are the challenges in the current development of sodium-ion batteries?
At present, the industrialization of sodium-ion batteries in top sodium-ion battery companies in the world is developing rapidly, but there are still some challenges to be overcome, mainly including the following aspects:
● The cycle life needs to be further improved. Most of the current commercialized sodium-ion batteries have less than 1000 cycles, which is far below the expected level;
● There is still a certain gap between the actual capacity of the electrode material and the theoretical capacity, especially the first cycle Coulombic efficiency and capacity of the anode material, which leads to a large gap between the actual energy density and the theoretical energy density;
● Further take advantage of the low solvation energy of Na+ to achieve fast charging and fast discharging at the level of several minutes (above 6C);
● Construct sodium-ion battery aging, failure and thermal runaway models to further improve the safety performance of sodium-ion batteries;
● Optimize the production and assembly process of each component of the sodium ion battery, give full play to the low cost advantage of the raw material of the sodium ion battery, and then realize the large-scale application.
Electrode material
The structure of oxide materials is unstable, and there are many side reactions on the surface. Compared with lithium-ion batteries, sodium-ion batteries are less stable in air due to the increased alkalinity, hydrophilicity and solubility of sodium;
Prussian blue materials have many structural defects and high lattice water content. In the preparation process of Prussian blue materials, the simple chemical precipitation method is mostly used, which will lead to the hydration of the Prussian blue material lattice and produce various adverse effects;
Polyanionic materials have low intrinsic electronic conductivity. Its crystal structure is a three-dimensional framework structure formed by the interconnection of octahedrons and tetrahedrons, which leads to poor kinetics of electron migration within it;
Carbon-based materials have low Coulombic efficiency and unclear electrochemical mechanisms. Carbon-based materials are currently the most widely used anode materials for sodium-ion batteries, and their electrochemical performance has been greatly improved. However, the coulombic efficiency of carbon-based anode materials is low due to the occurrence of side reactions or irreversible intercalation reactions during the charge and discharge process, and there is still a certain distance from the commercial standard.
Electrolyte, separator and battery cell
At present, most sodium ion electrolytes use organic solvents as carriers, and a certain concentration of sodium salt is added to them. Under the condition of wide working temperature range, the volatility, instability and coagulation of organic solvents require further exploration of the mechanism of action and compatibility between the components of the solvent or sodium salt in the electrolyte.
Currently commercialized battery separators mainly include polyethylene and polypropylene separators, which have excellent mechanical properties, chemical stability and low price. However, due to inherent disadvantages, such as poor thermal stability and poor wettability to the electrolyte of sodium-ion batteries, it is not suitable for sodium-ion batteries.
Therefore, it is particularly important to find new separators that can match the sodium-ion battery system. The development of low-cost, high-safety, and mass-producible Na-ion battery separators is worth exploring.
The core problem of sodium-ion battery devices is the aging and failure mechanism of batteries. Compared with lithium-ion batteries with mature technology, commercial sodium-ion batteries are still in their infancy, and the aging and failure mechanisms of their cells are still unclear, especially in large-scale sodium-ion battery energy storage power stations.
3. Key development directions of sodium-ion batteries
There are two key development directions for sodium-ion batteries, including the development of key technologies for ultra-long cycle life sodium-ion batteries and further improvement of the energy density of sodium-ion batteries.
Focus on the development of key technologies for ultra-long cycle life sodium-ion batteries, mainly including: electrode material crystal structure regulation, microstructure design, and preparation method optimization. Thus, a high-performance electrode material with stable structure, good uniformity, simple preparation process, and environmental protection is obtained.
Another key development direction is to further increase the energy density of sodium-ion batteries (>200Wh/kg). The aim is to develop high-voltage cathode materials and phosphorus-based anodes or non-anode technologies to achieve the adaptation between high-voltage cathodes and low-voltage, high-capacity anode materials.
Solid-state sodium-ion batteries replace traditional electrolytes and separators, and on the basis of reducing the quality of sodium-ion batteries, strive to use metal-containing sodium composite negative electrodes to build high-voltage sodium-ion batteries. Bipolar battery and moduleless battery pack technology can effectively reduce the total mass of the sodium-ion battery energy storage system and increase the total energy density of the battery pack.
Sodium-ion batteries are mainly composed of four parts: positive electrode material, negative electrode material, separator, and electrolyte. The electrolyte is mainly responsible for the conduction of conductive ions between the positive and negative electrodes, and plays a key role in the energy density, cycle life, power density, safety performance, and wide temperature application.
Top13 sodium-ion battery companies in the world in 2022
Top Sodium Ion Battery Companies?
Step into the future of energy storage with the Top Sodium Ion Battery Companies. Revolutionizing the landscape of rechargeable batteries, these industry leaders harness the power of sodium to propel advancements in sustainability and efficiency. Pioneering breakthroughs in technology, these companies redefine the potential of energy storage solutions, offering a cleaner and more accessible alternative. From extended lifespan to enhanced performance, explore how sodium ion batteries are shaping the future of renewable energy. ?
1. HiNa Battery Technology Co., Ltd.?
HiNa Battery Technology Co., Ltd. is a Chinese company dedicated to developing and manufacturing high-performance sodium-ion batteries. The company has made significant progress in commercializing sodium-ion batteries and is considered a leading player in the industry. HiNa Batterys sodium-ion batteries are known for their high energy density, long cycle life, and low cost.?
2. Faradion Limited
Faradion Limited is a British company specializing in non-aqueous sodium-ion battery technology. The companys batteries are designed for high-power applications, such as electric vehicles and grid storage. Faradions sodium-ion batteries are known for their long lifespan and ability to operate in a wide range of temperatures.?
3. Altris AB
Altris AB is a Swedish company developing sodium-ion batteries for stationary energy storage applications. The companys batteries are designed for long-duration storage and are well-suited for applications such as grid stabilization and microgrids. Altris?sodium-ion batteries are known for their high safety and reliability.?
4. AMTE Power PLC?
AMTE Power PLC is a British company developing sodium-ion batteries for electric vehicles and stationary energy storage applications. The companys batteries are designed to be cost-effective and have a long cycle life. AMTE Power is currently in the process of scaling up its production capacity to meet the growing demand for sodium-ion batteries.?
5. Contemporary Amperex Technology Co., Limited (CATL)?
Contemporary Amperex Technology Co., Limited (CATL) is a Chinese battery manufacturer that is exploring sodium-ion battery technology. The company is leveraging its expertise in lithium-ion batteries to develop high-performance sodium-ion batteries. CATLs entry into the sodium-ion battery market is expected to further accelerate the commercialization of this technology.?
6. Natron Energy Inc.?
Natron Energy Inc. is an American company developing sodium-ion batteries for stationary energy storage applications. The companys batteries are designed to be safe, reliable, and cost-effective. Natron Energy is currently in the process of developing a 100 MWh sodium-ion battery storage project.?
7. Tiamat?
Tiamat is a French company developing sodium-ion batteries for a variety of applications, including electric vehicles, stationary energy storage, and marine applications. The companys batteries are known for their high safety and performance. Tiamat is currently working with several partners to develop and commercialize its sodium-ion battery technology.?
8. Aquion Energy?
Aquion Energy is an American company that developed a saltwater-based sodium-ion battery. The companys batteries were designed for stationary energy storage applications, but Aquion Energy ceased operations in 2017. The companys technology was acquired by intellectual property management firm Black Patent Group, which is exploring opportunities to commercialize the technology.?
9. Ionic Materials
Ionic Materials is an American company developing a solid-state sodium-ion battery. The companys batteries are designed to be safer and more energy-dense than conventional lithium-ion batteries. Ionic Materials is currently in the early stages of development but has attracted significant investment from venture capitalists.?
10. Nexeon?
Nexeon is an Australian company developing a sodium-ion battery for electric vehicles. The companys batteries are designed to be high-performance and cost-effective. Nexeon is currently working with several partners to develop and commercialize its sodium-ion battery technology.
11. BYD
The BYD Company a Chinese electric vehicle manufacturer and battery manufacturer. In 2023, they invested $1.4B USD into the construction of a sodium-ion battery plant in Xuzhou with an annual output of 30 GWh.
12. KPIT Technologies
KPIT Technologies introduced India’s first sodium-ion battery technology, marking a significant breakthrough in the country. This newly developed technology is predicted to reduce the cost of batteries for electric vehicles by 25-30%. It has been developed in cooperation with Pune's Indian Institute of Science Education and Research over the course of almost a decade and claims several notable benefits over existing alternatives such as lead-acid and lithium-ion. Among its standout features are a longer lifespan of 3,000–6,000 cycles, faster charging than traditional batteries, greater resistance to below-freezing temperatures and with varied energy densities between 100 and 170 Wh/Kg.
13. Northvolt
Northvolt, Europe’s only large homegrown electric battery maker, has said it has made a “breakthrough” sodium-ion battery. Northvolt said its new battery, which has an energy density of more than 160 watt-hours per kilogram, has been designed for electricity storage plants but could in future be used in electric vehicles, such as two wheeled scooters.
?Following are the benefits or advantages of Sodium Ion Battery:
?Sodium is more abundant and widely available than lithium.
?Lower cost of sodium could lead to more affordable battery production at large scale manufacturing.
?Chemistry of sodium-ion is similar to lithium-ion which allows to use existing manufacturing processes and infrastructure.
?It can be used in grid scale energy storage applications which helps to integrate renewable energy sources.
?It might have reduced environmental impact compared to lithium-ion batteries during disposal/recycling.
Drawbacks Or Disadvantages Of Sodium Ion Battery
Following are the disadvantages of Sodium Ion Battery:
?They have lower energy density compared to lithium-ion batteries. This could impact their use in portable electronic devices or electric vehicles (EVs).
?It is not as mature as lithium-ion technology.
?Some sodium-ion battery chemistries may exhibit low life cycle and lower cycling stability compare to lithium-ion batteries. This could lead to short battery lifespans and more frequent battery replacements.
?They might have potential safety advantages over lithium-ion batteries. They need to undergo testing to ensure safety standards are passed.
?Performance of Na-ion batteries depend on specific materials used for electrodes, electrolyte and other components. It is a challenge to achieve consistent and predictable performance.
Comparison (SODIUM-ION BATTERIES WITH LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES)
Sodium-ion and Lithium-ion Battery Cell Performance
The natural abundance of sodium (Na), the Earth’s fifth most abundant element constituting 3% of its mass, is remarkably higher than that of lithium (Li), signifying its potential significance in battery production. The concentration of sodium in the Earth’s crust is about 1,180 times greater than that of lithium, and in the sea, it is an astonishing 60,000 times higher. These stark differences in availability are presented in Table 1:
Similarities in specific energy between Na-ion and LFP cells make sodium-ion batteries potentially well-suited for applications currently using LFP battery packs, such as industrial batteries. Such applications include EVs, e-buses, industrial and off-highway vehicles, stationary storage, marine and rail transport, and power tools.?
However, it remains to be seen whether the actual performance of batteries on a pack level differs significantly from what is reported on a cell level. We will need to see Na-ion battery packs’ performance in real life to confirm their data on the number of cycles before degradation, loss of capacity in extreme cold and hot conditions, and other specs.
Table 2: Overall comparison of sodium-ion cells against Lithium-ion cells.
Figure 2: Prices for different types of batteries per energy unit.
However, as per the Global EV Outlook 2023 by the International Energy Agency, Na-ion batteries currently do not offer the same energy density as Li-ion. With energy densities ranging from 75 to 160 Wh/kg for sodium-ion batteries compared to 120–260 Wh/kg for lithium-ion batteries, there exists a disparity in energy storage capacity.
This disparity may make sodium-ion batteries a good fit for off-highway, industrial and light urban commercial vehicles with lower range requirements, as well as for stationary storage applications. These applications prioritize cost-effectiveness and sustainability over maximizing the driving range important in a passenger EV.
Sodium-ion batteries have several advantages over competing battery technologies. Compared to lithium-ion batteries, sodium-ion batteries have somewhat lower cost, better safety characteristics, and similar power delivery characteristics, but also a lower energy density.
The table below compares how NIBs in general fare against the two established rechargeable battery technologies in the market currently: the lithium-ion battery and the rechargeable lead-acid battery.
Status of Sodium Ion Batteries in India
India has a vast energy storage market, second-largest after China in terms of energy consumption. Supposing that India wants to get away from its dependence on oil and wants its supremacy for cleaner and sustainable energy by moving towards renewable energy, it has to become reliant on imports as China owns 80% of the worldwide manufacturing of LIBs, relying on its vast lithium and cobalt availability . China has 30 times more lithium reserves than the US, accounting for 46% of refined cobalt global production in 2016 . Also, China has greater control over other battery-related materials like graphite. In such a scenario, if India wishes to show some LIBs manufacturing presence, it still has to depend on imports. If India has to succeed in its electric mobility strategy, it must rely on the batteries as much as possible. India now has a chance to get out of importing supply chain monopoly by adopting NIB technology without cobalt, copper, lithium, and graphite in sodium-based battery technology. The main advantage of Na ion technology is that it can be manufactured on existing infrastructure without additional capital investment. The only need is the material, which India has in surplus. To succeed, India needs to adopt a vertically integrated supply chain, i.e., the materials, battery capability, pack capability, and the manufacturers who can incorporate it entirely.
The fundamental phase of NIBs research in India started after the 20th century, except for a few articles in the 90s. Major funding agencies in India are D.S.T (Department of Science and Technology), U.G.C. (University Grants Commission), and C.S.I.R (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research). While discussing individual scientific contributions, Barpanda from the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) Bangalore has the maximum contributions to his credit. Organization-wise, the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) system leads from the front, followed by CSIR and IISc Bangalore. Figure shows the number of research papers published year-wise by Indian researchers till August 2021.
NIBs are now emerging as a potentially viable option for Indian researchers for large-scale applications. Many research institutes, universities, and private firms are looking deeper into this. This research field has new dimensions after the “Make in India” initiative from the Indian government. India was late in the LIBs and other semiconductor-based device research fields, but it runs parallel to other countries' in research on NIBs. Recently, a UK-based company, “Faradion,” had done a partnership with an Indian company called Infraprime Logistics Technologies (IPL) to develop NIBs for commercial electric vehicles in India and set up an initial goal of manufacturing its initial target set at 1 GW h . Concerned ministries have also come forward in this field. Centre for Materials for Electronics Technology (C-MET) under the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology (MeitY) sought industrial partners to develop technology transfer to design and build machinery indigenously . The giant project is achieving the goal of self-sustenance within five years. NIBs-based India research can be categorized into six major research activities in India (based on the significant work ongoing in different labs and universities)
NIB technology will be well-maintained for EVs, requiring moderate energy densities, like rickshaws and scooters or electrical buses. The cost of NIBs will be approved, the same as lead-acid batteries, but provide three times the driving range. In keeping with the India FAME II initiative to assertively expand India's electric vehicle consumer base, NIBs will prove a better battery technology to catapult this vision to success.
SODIUM BATTERIES: THE TECHNOLOGY OF THE FUTURE?
The battery sector is bustling with innovation. Research into increasingly efficient and higher performance technologies that can bring added value to the market never stops.
The last few years has seen a renewed interest in sodium-ion batteries, largely because of the economic benefits they yield.
Sodium-ion batteries are definitely growing in popularity in the fields of energy storage and electric mobility. However, these batteries still suffer from a number limitations that need to be resolved before they can be marketed for a large range of applications.
Let’s find out together what sodium batteries are and their characteristics.
WHAT ARE SODIUM BATTERIES AND HOW DO THEY WORK: SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES VS. LITHIUM BATTERIES
Like lithium, sodium is an alkali metal found in Group 1 of the periodic table.
The two metals are placed precisely one under the other in the first column of the periodic table, meaning they share a number of physical and chemical properties.
These similar properties led researchers to carry out the first studies on sodium batteries between 1970 and 1990, about the same time as the studies on lithium batteries. The latter, however, ended up enjoying greater success and went on to be commercialised, putting the sodium battery on the back burner.
What do sodium batteries and lithium batteries have in common?
The working principle underlying sodium-ion batteries and lithium-ion batteries is practically the same and many electrode materials used in sodium-ion technology were borrowed from lithium-ion technology.
Both technologies, in fact, use ions to carry and store energy. Sodium ions move from the cathode (positive electrode) to the anode (negative electrode) through the electrolyte and separator, carried by the electrical current during the charging phase. During discharge, the ions return towards the cathode and a stream of electrons, i.e. electric current, flows in the external circuit in the opposite direction with respect to the charge.
The cathode is the positive pole of the battery and is made up of cathode material (e.g. LFP, NMC) and current collector. The anode, the negative pole of the battery, is made up of anode material (e.g. carbon or graphite) and the current collector.
A sodium cell is basically made up of a cathode consisting of a material capable of containing sodium, an anode generally made of carbon, and a liquid electrolyte containing sodium atoms in ionic form. The electrolyte is an organic liquid that fills the cell’s internal volume, acting as a connecting link between the cathode and anode that enables the ions to move.
Image taken from Handbook of Battery Materials; John Wiley & Sons: Weinheim, Germany, 2012
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How do sodium batteries and lithium batteries differ?
There are substantial differences between the two elements from a purely chemical point of view. The atomic radius of a sodium cation is 0.3 ? larger than the lithium counterpart. This means that its atomic weight and mass is over 3 times larger than that of lithium.
This alone brings significant technical problems in need of a solution: in the movement between the anode and cathode, the mass of the sodium atom, being 3 times larger than that of lithium, creates greater mechanical stress that translates into high deterioration of the cell.
As a consequence, sodium batteries have a short cycle-life and do not perform as well as lithium batteries because graphite, which is the anode material most commonly used in lithium batteries, suffers irreversible exfoliation reactions in the interaction with the sodium ion and self-destructs after a few life cycles.
Therefore, one of the most complex aspects is identifying a suitable negative electrode that can be used in place of graphite and capable of increasing the life cycle of sodium batteries.
Moreover, the standard reduction potential of sodium ions is lower than lithium, in other words, their tendency to gain electrons is lower. This means that compared to a lithium cell, the sodium battery will be able to supply a lower maximum voltage: the nominal voltage of the sodium cell is 2.3 – 2.5V vs. lithium’s 3.2 – 3.7V. Sodium and lithium both carry the same charge if we take into account that the electrochemical processes taking place in sodium-ion batteries and lithium-ion batteries are the same. However, ounce-for-ounce, a sodium battery will carry less charge than a lithium one, in other words, it will have a lower energy density.
Due to these two characteristics combined, a sodium battery can store 40% less energy than a lithium battery.
PROS AND CONS OF SODIUM BATTERIES
Sodium batteries are receiving renewed attention mostly because there is a need for concrete alternatives to lithium in applications where part of the production can be differentiated.
While lithium exists in nature within many rocks and in some brine, the amount in the earth’s crust is not inexhaustible. On top of that, extracting lithium requires energy.
The high demand for this raw material along with its limited availability in nature has driven its price through the roof, earning it the name “white gold”. Going forward, lithium batteries are bound to increase in demand and this has raised questions about the availability of the raw materials and the sustainability of an economy solely based on this chemistry.
Needless to say, achieving the highest performance for the specific application of the technology is a not-insignificant aspect in the search for alternative chemistries.
Can sodium batteries be a viable alternative to lithium? Let’s delve deeper into the pros and cons of sodium batteries.
Benefits of sodium batteries
One of the most interesting aspects of this technology is the wide availability in nature of its constituent raw materials. Sodium, in fact, is the sixth most abundant element in the earth’s crust. This feature makes sodium batteries economically competitive, which is an important aspect for manufacturers.
Sodium batteries also ensure high standards of safety because cells based on this chemical element are neither flammable nor susceptible to explosions or short circuits. What is more, these batteries can withstand extreme high and low temperatures, having the possibility to operate in a range between ?20°C and 60°C, whereas the optimal operation temperature range for lithium cells is between 0 C and 50 C.
The raw materials are readily available in nature and can be extracted at low costs and with low energy use, making sodium a material with a low impact on the environment.?
Limitations of sodium batteries
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A major disadvantage of sodium batteries is their energy density, in other words, the amount of energy stored with respect to the battery’s volume. The density of sodium batteries is still relatively low, between 140 Wh/Kg and 160 Wh/kg, compared to lithium-ion battery’s 180 Wh/Kg–250 Wh/Kg.
Another great deterrent to the practical use of sodium batteries is their short life cycles. The fast degradation is due to the larger mass of sodium ions, which is 3 times greater than that of lithium ions. Sodium ions produce greater mechanical stress in the movement between anode and cathode, causing the destruction of the graphite—the anode material—after a few cycles.
Challenges and Opportunities
While sodium ion batteries offer many advantages, there are still challenges to overcome. Research and development efforts are focused on improving their;
As technology continues to advance, we can expect to see ongoing improvements in sodium ion battery performance. This will open up new opportunities for their use in various industries. This will further solidify their place as a key player in the energy storage market.
Pioneers in Sodium Ion Battery Development
Let's take a moment to recognize some of the key players driving the development of these batteries. Their hard work and dedication are pushing the boundaries of what's possible with this technology.
Research Institutions
Many universities and research institutions around the world are actively working on improving sodium ion battery technology. Their efforts focus on enhancing the;
Some leading institutions in this field include;
Startups and Companies
Many startups and established companies are investing in the development of batteries with alternative chemistries. These organizations are exploring ways to incorporate sodium ion or other such technology into various applications.
Collaborations and Partnerships
The advancement of sodium ion battery technology relies on the collaboration between;
By working together, these stakeholders can accelerate the development of sodium ion batteries. This will pave the way for a more sustainable and efficient energy future. The growth of this technology also presents new business opportunities. Companies and investors alike will recognize the potential of sodium ion batteries. By;
We can unlock a world of possibilities for clean and sustainable energy storage. With these key players and collaborative efforts, the future of sodium ion batteries looks bright. They promise to revolutionize the way we store and use energy in the years to come.
?What is the outlook for sodium-ion technology?
According to forecasts, the sodium-ion battery market is expected to grow at a rate of 27% per year over the next decade. Annual production will presumably go from 10 GWh in 2025 to approximately 70 GWh in 2033, an increase of nearly 600%.
Sodium-ion technology could become even more widespread thanks to the fact that largely the same technologies are used for sodium-cell and lithium-cell production, providing the possibility to convert the production lines and making it even more cost-effective.
Although sodium-ion batteries still exhibit some problems to solve, interest in these accumulators is growing in the world of electrification, so much so that major international players in the field of battery manufacturing are turning their attention to this technology.
Sodium batteries have particularly sparked the curiosity of the automotive sector.
CATL, the world’s largest manufacturer of lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles and of energy storage systems, brought sodium-ion chemistry under the spotlight in 2021, presenting it as one of the emerging technologies on which it would be investing to differentiate its production.
The Chinese giant is doing this on the insight that replacing a slice of the market now held by lithium-ion batteries with sodium-ion batteries would substantially bring down the price of lithium batteries.
CATL has come up with an innovative idea to overcome the drawbacks of sodium batteries: that of developing a hybrid battery pack. This involves mixing and matching sodium-ion batteries and lithium-ion batteries in a certain proportion, integrating them into one battery system and using a smart BMS to control the different battery systems. Depending on needs, the vehicle could exploit the low-temperature performance of the sodium-ion battery or the high energy density. The project is still at the experimental stage, but the eyes of the entire industry are already on the Chinese company.
Despite some critical issues needing resolution, sodium-ion technology is definitely carving out an increasingly bigger slice of the market for itself. Research in this field is buzzing now—as it is for other emerging technologies, such as, for example, solid-state batteries, —and large resources are being invested to overcome the barriers that are currently hindering deployment on a large scale. Introducing this technology in the market could bring tangible advantages to sectors where energy density is secondary to the economic factor and that currently rely on lithium batteries alone.
The Present and Future Potential of Sodium-Ion Batteries
Researchers and companies around the world are working to improve the performance and commercial viability of sodium-ion batteries. Some key areas of focus include improving the energy density and voltage of sodium-ion batteries, as well as increasing their lifespan and charge/discharge rate.
If these efforts are successful, sodium-ion batteries could become a viable alternative to lithium-ion batteries in the future. They could potentially be used in various applications, including portable electronics, electric vehicles, and stationary energy storage systems.
Sodium-Ion Mass Production Has Already Started
In December of 2022 it was reported?that a company named HiNa in partnership with Chines state-owned China Three Gorges Corporation, had started mass production of sodium-ion batteries. The first generation of HiNa batteries offer energy density figures of 125Wh/kg, which is around half that of lithium-ion batteries. However, these batteries are rated for around 4500 charge cycles, which is significantly more than typical lithium-ion batteries.
Typical lithium iron phosphate batteries offer energy densities similar to sodium-ion batteries, and the rated number of charge cycles is also similar. That puts sodium-ion batteries in direct competition with these batteries for applications such as backup inverter power or electric vehicles.
The next generation of these HiNa batteries are slated to have a 200Wh/kg energy density, and subsequent generations are expected to exceed that. Considering that some electric cars using lithium batteries have an energy density below 250Wh/kg, these early mass-produced sodium-ion batteries have serious potential to reduce the cost of power storage.
However, just like LiFeP04 batteries, don't expect this technology in your smartphone or laptop any time soon. In these small devices, energy density is still the most important consideration. However, don't be surprised if your electric car or solar power battery system gets a little saltier in the near future.
SODIUM-ION VS. LITHIUM-ION BATTERY: WHICH IS A BETTER ALTERNATIVE?
However, sodium-ion batteries lack of a well-established raw material supply chain and the technology is still in early stages of development.
SUPPLY CHAIN STRATEGY
Lithium is the most common element in battery manufacturing, with China controlling the global lithium-ion battery supply chain (79% of all lithium-ion batteries). China also controls 61% of global lithium refining capacity used for battery storage and electric cars.
The next big supplier is Argentina, accounting for 21% of global deposits, giving it tremendous power in raw material mining and to influence the lithium supply chain, with 13 proposed projects and dozens more in the works.
Lithium-ion batteries are made of scarce and pricey elements such as cobalt and lithium. Lithium prices have increased by more than 700% since 2021 amid rising demand for batteries. Lithium-based batteries would likewise have difficulty meeting the increasing demand for power grid energy storage. Technology companies are looking for alternatives to replace traditional lithium-ion batteries.
Sodium-ion Batteries are on the Horizon: How do They Measure up to Lithium-ion?
A comparative look at sodium-ion and lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries highlights the feasibility of using sodium-ion batteries in industrial machinery.
Given the limited supply and high price of battery-grade lithium and other advanced battery materials, alternative battery chemistries are being researched. Some avenues, such as sodium-ion batteries, are yielding the first tangible results. Sodium-ion batteries are one of the most developed technologies today and have the potential to become a viable option in many battery applications in the near future.
The initial commercial success of sodium-ion batteries indicates a potential for substantial growth in this segment. However, new battery technology requires years of engineering for successful commercialization, and with the accelerating demand, there remains a risk of battery shortages in the mid-term future.
Sodium-ion Battery Technologynbsp; is Commercially Available
CATL, one of the world’s biggest lithium battery manufacturers based in Ningde, China, is launching commercial-scale manufacturing of sodium-ion (Na-ion) batteries to be used in passenger EVs. This may indicate the early market adoption and growth potential for sodium-ion chemistry, replacing lithium-ion (Li-ion) in some battery applications.
Lithium Forklift Batteries Find Second Life in Solar Energy Storage
The current demand for sodium within the battery industry is negligible, especially in contrast to the surging demand for lithium in Li-ion battery packs. The year 2022 marked a notable milestone for lithium-ion batteries, as the prices of battery packs increased for the first time in 12 years since BloombergNEF (BNEF) began tracking prices. The price reached $151 per kWh, largely due to the soaring demand for batteries driven by the electrification of passenger electric vehicles (EVs), as well as electrical industrial equipment and energy storage manufacturing.????????????
Sodium-ion vs. Lithium-ion Battery Cell
Structure of Sodium-ion and Lithium-ion Battery Cells
Similar to lithium-ion cells, sodium-ion battery cells have positive and negative electrodes, a separator and an electrolyte. Both battery types are based on the “rocking chair” principle: During the charging and discharging processes, positive ions travel back and forth between the two electrodes of the battery, as shown in Fig. 1.
Figure 1: Sodium-ion battery cell schematic.
Similar to the early days of lithium-ion batteries, sodium-ion batteries also utilize a cobalt-containing active component. Specifically, sodium cobalt oxide (NaCoO2) is used as the primary active material for sodium-ion cells, mirroring the use of lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) in lithium-ion cells.
However, as technology advanced and concerns arose about the sustainability and cost of cobalt, the industry began exploring alternatives. In lithium-ion batteries, cathode materials like NMC (nickel, manganese, cobalt) and NCA (nickel, cobalt, aluminum) are increasingly being substituted with more abundant and cost-effective LFP (lithium, iron, phosphate) chemistry. Similarly, researchers and manufacturers are actively working towards substituting cobalt-containing compounds in sodium-ion battery cathodes with more sustainable and economical elements.
For a comprehensive understanding of these components and their roles in sodium-ion battery cells, refer to this article. Although this article concerns lithium-ion batteries, the fundamental principles of electrolyte and integrated separator functionality fully apply to sodium-ion batteries.?
Sustainability
The abundance of Sodium (Na) in the world’s oceans presents a compelling opportunity for large-scale sodium extraction, leveraging existing technologies. Presently, brine extraction on the mainland is a commonly employed method, followed by water evaporation, chemical separation of sodium-containing salts and subsequent chemical recovery of sodium.
However, future advancements could replace this approach with the desalination of seawater, offering the advantage of clean drinking water as a byproduct of sodium extraction. This innovative technology has already been extensively discussed in Nature. Further development of this technology, such as anode-free sodium metal batteries, can help reduce the carbon footprint and energy use during battery manufacturing and recycling processes.?
Lower Cost of a Battery Packnbsp;
The specific price for sodium-ion battery packs is lower today and is expected to decrease as production volume grows and further advancements in technology are made. Unlike lithium, there is no foreseeable shortage of raw sodium.?
Figure 2 shows a price comparison for different types of bat
However, as per the Global EV Outlook 2023 by the International Energy Agency, Na-ion batteries currently do not offer the same energy density as Li-ion. With energy densities ranging from 75 to 160 Wh/kg for sodium-ion batteries compared to 120–260 Wh/kg for lithium-ion batteries, there exists a disparity in energy storage capacity.
This disparity may make sodium-ion batteries a good fit for off-highway, industrial and light urban commercial vehicles with lower range requirements, as well as for stationary storage applications. These applications prioritize cost-effectiveness and sustainability over maximizing the driving range important in a passenger EV.?
Gigafactories can be Retrofitted to Produce Na-ion Cells Relatively Quicklynbsp;
Sodium-ion Batteries 2023-2033: Technology, Players, Markets and Forecasts argues that Na-ion is a drop-in technology for the current production lines of Li-ion batteries. This means that if sodium batteries will indeed start to replace lithium in some applications, manufacturers can switch to the new chemistry very fast.
Sodium-ion Batteries for?Material Handling Equipment (MHE)
Material handling equipment has specific requirements based on the particulars of its applications:
Given these specific requirements, MHE requires lower specific battery energy (Wh/kg) but higher specific power (W/kg) compared to passenger EVs. If sodium-ion technologies can meet the challenge of delivering higher power and durability, they may indeed have a bright future in the MHE industry. And unlike with an EV, extra battery weight is often welcome as a counterweight in some trucks.
A simultaneous development of demand for lithium-ion and sodium-ion forklift batteries is quite possible, and sodium-ion battery packs becoming a direct competitor to TPPL (thin plate pure lead batteries?) lead-acid batteries, which are currently used in applications with lower power demands.
Active Manufacturers of Sodium-ion Batteriesnbsp;
According to IEA’s Global EV Outlook 2023, there are nearly 30 sodium-ion battery manufacturing plants currently operating, planned or under construction, for a combined capacity of over 100 GWh, and almost all of them are in China. For comparison, the total U manufacturing capacity of lithium-ion batteries in 2022 is estimated at 110 GWh.?
Within the next few years, we will see if this new technology can be scaled and achieve wide commercialization, or if it will remain a niche product along with many other battery chemistries. Below are a few key players that have made significant progress in the development and commercialization of sodium-ion batteries.
Sodium-ion vs. Lithium-ion Battery Technology
Sodium-ion batteries are a promising alternative to lithium-ion batteries — currently the most widely used type of rechargeable battery. Both types of batteries use a liquid electrolyte to store and transfer electrical energy, but differ in the type of ions they use.
An examination of Lithium-ion (Li-ion) and sodium-ion (Na-ion) battery components reveals that the nature of the cathode material is the main difference between the two batteries. Because the preparation cost of the cathode from raw materials is the same for both types of battery technologies, the main cost reduction for sodium-ion batteries comes from raw materials.
Here below is a table to compare the differences between Solid Battery and Lithium Battery. Hope it is helpful for you.
Chemical Element Comparison: Sodium vs. Lithiumnbsp;
Abundance
The natural abundance of sodium (Na), the Earth’s fifth most abundant element constituting 3% of its mass, is remarkably higher than that of lithium (Li), signifying its potential significance in battery production. The concentration of sodium in the Earth’s crust is about 1,180 times greater than that of lithium, and in the sea, it is an astonishing 60,000 times higher. These stark differences in availability are presented in Table 1:
Table 1. Na and Li in the Earth’s crust and in the sea. Source: CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 103rd Edition (2022-2023)?
One significant advantage lies in the cost of sodium. A simple comparison of prices on the Shanghai Metals Market reveals a striking 20-fold difference in prices of pure sodium and lithium compounds (June 2023):
Sodium carbonate costs approximately $290 per metric ton.
Lithium carbonate (99.5% battery grade), on the other hand, commands a significantly higher price of about $35,000 per metric ton (even after a sharp decline since mid-July 2022).
Sodium-ion and Lithium-ion Battery Cell Performance
Similarities in specific energy between Na-ion and LFP cells make sodium-ion batteries potentially well-suited for applications currently using LFP battery packs, such as industrial batteries. Such applications include EVs, e-buses, industrial and off-highway vehicles, stationary storage, marine and rail transport, and power tools.?
However, it remains to be seen whether the actual performance of batteries on a pack level differs significantly from what is reported on a cell level. We will need to see Na-ion battery packs’ performance in real life to confirm their data on the number of cycles before degradation, loss of capacity in extreme cold and hot conditions, and other specs.
Table 2: Overall comparison of sodium-ion cells against Lithium-ion cells. Sources: Sodium-ion Battery Pack Advantages
PRIMARY APPLICATIONS: WHERE IS THE USE OF SODIUM BATTERIES BENEFICIAL?
APPLICATIONS OF SODIUM-ION BATTERIES
Small range applications: portable electronic gadgets like laptops, torches, mobile phones, etc., require a battery capacity of 200–300 mAh/g, minimum cyclic life of ～200 cycles or beyond, and capacity retention of more than 80%. With the pace of ongoing research, NIBs may soon replace LIBs and other battery types.
Medium-range applications: to operate an electric vehicle, high energy density and long cycle life (more than 1000 cycles) are necessary. Considering the recent results, these goals will not be so far to achieve.
High range applications: Grid-scale energy storage is required in various hydroelectric, wind, and solar power plants. It is the main requirement for long cycle life (>20,000 cycles) and storage efficiencies of >90%. New cathode material, like Na3V2(PO4)3 (NVP) and its composite, long cycle life (more than 30000), seems to be achievable
Sodium batteries might prove to be an alternative to lithium batteries in applications where the economic factor is more important than performance.
More specifically, low costs and low energy density make sodium-ion batteries especially suitable for stationary applications and energy storage systems. These include photovoltaic and wind power systems with an intermittent production profile. In fact, Na-ion devices have a high level of safety that makes them suitable for applications such as these, requiring frequent hourly and daily charge and discharge cycles.
Sodium-ion technology is not very widespread in this field as of yet due to low cycle-life, still unable to meet the high number of charge and discharge cycles these applications require. If sodium cells were to become competitive in terms of life cycle duration with new research developments, they could definitely be a good technology for stationary applications.
“Sodium batteries currently have limited performance due to low energy density, but they represent a real alternative to lithium for lower-performance applications. This is crucial if we are to meet the demand of this ever-growing market. We need to keep looking to the future and ensure the sustainability of the supply chain by using lithium in applications where it is indispensable while continuing to search for technologies that allow differentiating a part of the production and ending the heavy reliance on lithium to cover the entire demand.”
Current Uses and Application of Sodium Ion Batteries
Now that we've covered some of the key advantages of sodium ion batteries, let's explore their current uses in various industries.
Grid Energy Storage Application
One of the primary uses of sodium ion batteries is in grid energy storage. They're used to store excess energy produced by renewable sources, such as solar or wind power, and then release it back into the grid when needed.
This helps to balance supply and demand, ensuring a more reliable and stable power supply. Sodium ion batteries are particularly well-suited for grid energy storage due to their;
These qualities make them an excellent choice for large-scale projects. Examples of these are such as grid-connected energy storage facilities or microgrids.
Electric Vehicles Application
Sodium ion batteries are starting to appear in electric cars. Just last month VW Partnership installed sodium ion batteries in a mass-produced car for the first time. Lithium-ion batteries currently dominate the electric vehicle market. However, sodium ion batteries have the potential to offer a more sustainable solution.
With further advancements in technology, we may see a shift towards sodium ion batteries in the electric vehicle industry.
Portable Electronics Application
Sodium ion batteries are also being explored for use in portable electronics, such as smartphones and laptops. Their energy density is currently lower than that of lithium-ion batteries.
Yet, ongoing research and development efforts aim to improve their performance. If successful, sodium ion batteries could offer a more sustainable and affordable alternative in the portable electronics market. This could lead to;
In the race between the big players in the portable electronics industry, early adoption of these batteries could be crucial.
Backup Power Systems Application
Another potential application for sodium ion batteries is in backup power systems. Their safety and long cycle life make them an attractive option for emergency power generators. Businesses and critical infrastructure are becoming more reliant on a stable power supply.
The demand for reliable backup power solutions continues to grow. Sodium ion batteries could provide a sustainable and cost-effective solution.
Future Uses of Sodium Ion Batteries
Sodium ion batteries possess unique properties and advantages. These batteries have the potential to revolutionize many industries in the future.
Consumer Electronics Application
There's a growing demand for longer-lasting, more efficient batteries as technology develops. Sodium ion batteries could provide a solution here. They offer improved performance and lower costs compared to lithium-ion batteries. Researchers are constantly exploring new horizons in sodium ion battery technology.
This could lead to a change in the consumer electronics industry. More and more devices will adopt sodium ion batteries as their primary power source.
Large-Scale Renewable Energy Storage
As the world continues to shift towards renewable energy sources, sodium ion batteries could play a crucial role in large-scale energy storage. Three of the biggest advantages are;
This makes them an ideal choice for storing energy from;
Efficiently storing and distributing renewable energy is essential for a sustainable energy future. Without this capability, it will be impossible to transition to cleaner and more sustainable sources of energy.
By leveraging the advantages of sodium ion batteries, we can better integrate renewable energy sources into our power grids. This will reduce our reliance on fossil fuels, and move towards a cleaner, greener future.
Remote or Off-Grid Applications
Sodium ion batteries could also prove invaluable in remote or off-grid locations. Here, traditional power sources are either unreliable or unavailable. These batteries could be used to store energy from solar panels or other renewable sources. This will provide a stable and sustainable supply for remote communities and facilities.
Sodium ion batteries could help in developing countries or disaster-stricken areas too. They could offer a reliable and affordable solution for powering essential services. These include medical facilities, schools, and communication networks.
Smart Grids and IoT Devices Application
The Internet of Things (IoT) continues to expand. Smart grid technology is becoming more prevalent. The need, therefore, for efficient and versatile energy storage solutions grows. Sodium ion batteries could play a key role in powering IoT devices and supporting smart grid infrastructure. Their long cycle life, safety, and scalability make them an attractive option for;
By incorporating sodium ion batteries into our ever-expanding network of connected devices and systems, we can establish a more efficient and resilient energy landscape. This will allow us to build a future that can better meet our energy demands.
What do sodium-ion batteries contain?
Enter sodium-ion (Na-ion) batteries, seen as a cheaper and even more sustainable alternative to LFP.
Sodium-ion cells share a similar construction and alkali metal properties with Li-ion, albeit being slightly heavier and bigger.
The anode’s hard carbon material allows a broader range of available electrolytes, resulting in a wider operating temperature range and ultimately makes it safer to use (more on that below).
Due to the multiple advantages of sodium-ion batteries, large players in the energy industry are investing in acquiring and developing this technology. For example, Faradion, a battery technology company in the UK and an innovator in Na-ion battery, was recently acquired by Reliance New Energy Solar, a subsidiary of Reliance Industries, for $135 million.
Challenges for Sodium-ion Battery
Despite the advantages, sodium ion battery manufacturing needs to overcome several challenges before it can be widely adopted as a replacement for lithium-ion batteries.
Can Sodium-based Batteries Replace Lithium-ion Batteries?
While there are many potential advantages to using sodium-ion batteries over lithium-ion batteries, there are also several challenges that need to be overcome before they can be widely adopted as a replacement.
If sodium-ion batteries are to become the backbone of the energy storage industry, they must continue to improve their technical performance. Researchers are working to improve the performance and stability of the batteries, as well as to reduce their cost, while companies are looking to establish a supply chain for the materials used in the batteries.
A New Dawn For Sodium-Ion Batteries
The quest for sustainable and cost-effective energy solutions has taken a significant leap forward with the development of a new cathode material for sodium-ion batteries by researchers at Argonne National Laboratory. This innovative breakthrough promises to unlock potential of sodium-ion batteries, paving the way for their broader adoption in electric vehicles and renewable energy storage.
For years, lithium-ion batteries have reigned supreme in the reigned supreme in the energy storage landscape, powering everything from smartphones to electric cars. However, their reliance on lithium, a relatively scarce and expensive resource, has sparked concerns about long-term sustainability and affordability. Sodium, on the other hand, is far more abundant and significantly cheaper, making it an attractive alternative for battery production.
However, sodium-ion batteries have traditionally struggled to match the energy density and cycle life of their lithium-ion counterparts. This has limited their potential applications and hindered their widespread adoption. Enter the Argonne National Laboratory team, led by senior chemist Christopher Johnson. Inspired by their earlier work on lithium-ion batteries, they have developed a novel sodium-nickel-manganese-iron oxide (NMF) cathode material. This layered structure allows for efficient insertion and extraction of sodium ions, significantly boosting the battery's energy density.
A Leap Towards Practical Electric Vehicle Ranges
This advancement holds the key to unlocking the potential of sodium-ion batteries. Compared to other sodium-ion technologies, the NMF cathode offers a much higher energy density, enough to power electric vehicles for a range of around 180 to 200 miles on a single charge. While this may not reach the range of high-end lithium-ion batteries, it presents a compelling option for budget-conscious consumers and city dwellers with shorter commutes.
Furthermore, the NMF cathode addresses another major drawback of earlier sodium-ion batteries – their short cycle life. With this new material, battery cells achieve a similar number of charge/discharge cycles as their lithium-ion counterparts, improving their overall durability and cost-effectiveness.
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Advantages Of Sodium As A Battery Material
One of the most exciting aspects of sodium-ion batteries lies in the inherent advantages offered by the element sodium itself. Compared to its more ubiquitous counterpart, lithium, sodium boasts several key characteristics that contribute to its potential as a sustainable and cost-effective battery material.
Abundance And Cost-effectiveness
Reduced Susceptibility to Price Fluctuations and Supply Chain Disruptions
Cost Reduction Compared To Lithium-Ion Batteries
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Challenges To Widespread Adoption
While the advancements in energy density achieved by US researchers for sodium-ion batteries are promising, it's crucial to acknowledge the existing limitations that still pose challenges to their widespread adoption.
Lower Energy Density
The most significant hurdle for sodium-ion batteries is their lower energy density compared to their lithium-ion counterparts. This translates to storing less energy per unit weight or volume. In practical terms, a sodium-ion battery powering an electric vehicle would need to be heavier and bulkier than a lithium-ion battery to achieve the same range. This weight penalty can affect vehicle performance and efficiency, hindering their appeal in the transportation sector.
Weight And Vehicle Range Impact
The weight difference directly impacts the range of electric vehicles powered by sodium-ion batteries. A heavier battery pack reduces the vehicle's overall range, potentially falling short of consumer expectations and limiting practicality for long-distance travel. This becomes especially crucial for commercial vehicles like trucks and buses, where extended range is paramount.
Less Mature Technology And Supply Chain
Sodium-ion battery technology is still in its early stages of development compared to lithium-ion batteries. This results in a less mature supply chain and higher manufacturing costs. The limited production scale further hinders cost reduction and optimization opportunities. This lack of commercial viability compared to established lithium-ion technology poses a significant challenge for widespread adoption.
FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTION AND ANSWERS
How good are sodium-ion batteries?
Sodium-ion batteries have several advantages over competing battery technologies. Compared to lithium-ion batteries, sodium-ion batteries have somewhat lower cost, better safety characteristics, and similar power delivery characteristics, but also a lower energy density.
What is the future of sodium-ion battery?
According to forecasts, the sodium-ion battery market is expected to grow at a rate of 27% per year over the next decade. Annual production will presumably go from 10 GWh in 2025 to approximately 70 GWh in 2033, an increase of nearly 600%.
What are the advantages of a sodium-ion battery?
They provide energy efficient power with fast charging, stability against temperature extremes and safety against overheating or thermal runaway. They are less toxic than other popular batteries, as they do not require lithium, cobalt, copper or nickel that can release polluting gases in the event of a fire.
What is a sodium-ion battery overview?
Sodium-ion batteries (NIBs) are considered as one of the main complementary energy storage devices to the common Li-ion batteries. The most successful demonstrations of Na-ion batteries rely on non-aqueous electrolytes, based on organic solvents.
How are sodium-ion batteries made?
A SIB consists of a positive (cathode) and negative (anode) electrode that are spaced apart by a separator, and an electrolyte. The latter contains a sodium salt dissolved in a suitable solvent mixture and enables the transport of sodium ions between the electrodes while being electronically insulated.
What is the material used in sodium-ion battery?
Anode and cathode materials of Na-ion batteries can be classified into four groups; for anodes: (a) carbonaceous, (b) alloy, (d) phosphoric, and (d) sulfides or metal oxides, and for cathodes: (1) layered O3, (2) layered P2, (3) polyanionic compounds, and (d) Prussian blue analogs (PBAs) (Roberts and Kendrick,
What are the applications of sodium-ion batteries?
Sodium-ion battery applications Sodium-ion batteries make it possible to store renewable energy for homes and businesses, ensuring a balanced supply of every green megawatt generated. One of the main applications in the energy industry is self-consumption.
Who is the largest producer of sodium-ion batteries?
Top Sodium Ion Battery Companies
What is sodium-ion battery technology?
Sodium-ion battery tech offers an extended lifespan with 80% capacity retention for 3000-6000 cycles and faster charging capability as compared to Lithium batteries. This indigenous battery technology's cornerstone is utilising earth-abundant raw materials, thereby making electric mobility more affordable.
What is the range of a sodium-ion battery?
Compared with other sodium-ion technology, however, the team's cathode has much higher energy density, enough to power electric vehicles for a driving range of about 180-200 miles on a single charge.
What are the disadvantages of sodium-ion batteries?
Short cycle-life A major disadvantage of sodium batteries is their energy density, in other words, the amount of energy stored with respect to the battery's volume. The density of sodium batteries is still relatively low, between 140 Wh/Kg and 160 Wh/kg, compared to lithium-ion battery's 180 Wh/Kg–250 Wh/Kg.
Which company makes sodium-ion battery in India?
KPIT firm joins a small group of sustainability-focused organisations worldwide that have developed sodium-ion batteries. This battery technology has several use cases for automotive and mobility, especially for electric two and three-wheelers and commercial vehicles.
What is the anode used in sodium-ion battery?
Carbon-Based anode materials Nowadays, the most used anode material in battery technology is graphite, which could not intercalate sodium to any appreciable extent and is electrochemically irreversible with low capacity and irreversibility of a Na/C (graphite) cell
Is sodium-ion battery renewable?
Still, sodium-ion holds so much potential as renewable energy storage when it comes to applications where weight is irrelevant, like grid storage and home batteries.
Do sodium batteries need BMS?
Sodium-ion batteries may have different temperature sensitivities than lithium-ion batteries. BMS systems for sodium-ion batteries need to account for these differences in thermal management and safety mechanisms.
Are sodium ions positive or negative?
Since it has 1 more proton than electrons, sodium has a charge of +1, making it a positive ion. Chlorine gains an electron, leaving it with 17 protons and 18 electrons. Since it has 1 more electron than protons, chlorine has a charge of –1, making it a negative ion.
What is better than sodium-ion battery?
(1) The energy density of sodium ion batteries is low. It is only 100-150Wh/kg, while the energy density of lithium energy is 120-180Wh/kg. This means that for batteries of the same size, sodium-ion batteries can store much less energy than lithium-ion batteries.
Which sodium battery company is owned by Ambani?
Why Mukesh Ambani Acquired A Sodium Battery Business Of Faradian. Indian billionaire Mukesh Ambani 's Reliance New Energy Solar Ltd(a wholly-owned subsidiary of Reliance Industries Ltd) recently bought United Kingdom's Sodium battery maker Faradion for $136 million.
What is the efficiency of sodium battery?
The (round trip) energy efficiency of sodium-ion batteries is 92% at a discharge time of 5 hours, in contrast with a lead-acid battery that has an energy efficiency of circa 70%.
Is sodium-ion safer than lithium?
Sodium-ion batteries cost significantly cheaper to produce. They are also safer, and do not explode or catch fire easily. They are also more environmentally friendly, and there is an opportunity for innovation and technological advancements
What are the raw materials for sodium-ion battery?
Both types of battery cells are mainly based on abundant raw materials. The anode is made up of hard carbon from either bio-based lignin or fossil raw materials, and the cathode is made up of so-called "Prussian white" (consisting of sodium, iron, carbon and nitrogen). The electrolyte contains a sodium salt.
What is the best cathode material for sodium-ion battery?
Among the various cathode materials for SIBs, iron-based materials have become the most suitable ones for grid-scale energy storage-conversion systems due to the rich natural abundance of sodium, low cost, high safety, and non-toxicity.
What is a sodium-ion battery summary?
A SIB consists of a positive (cathode) and negative (anode) electrode that are spaced apart by a separator, and an electrolyte. The latter contains a sodium salt dissolved in a suitable solvent mixture and enables the transport of sodium ions between the electrodes while being electronically insulated.
What is the future of sodium-ion batteries?
According to forecasts, the sodium-ion battery market is expected to grow at a rate of 27% per year over the next decade. Annual production will presumably go from 10 GWh in 2025 to approximately 70 GWh in 2033, an increase of nearly 600%.
What is the working temperature of sodium-ion battery?
Sodium-Ion Battery with a Wide Operation-Temperature Range from-70 to 100 °C
The future of sodium ion technology
The lithium battery research activity driven in recent years has benefited the development of sodium-ion batteries. By maintaining a number of similarities with lithium-ion batteries, this type of energy storage has seen particularly rapid progress and promises to be a key advantage in their deployment.
But, in addition, the growing demand for large-scale electrical energy storage and recent discoveries - for example, the use of hard carbon as an anode material - are leading to the increasing development of sodium-ion batteries.
Its major challenges open up three main lines of technological improvement:
Once achieved, the next goal will be to commercialize this technology at low cost and on a large scale. This is just the beginning of a journey that lays the foundation for a major revolution in renewable energy storage.
Solution Architect: Computer geek, Inventor, Artist
3 个月A very impressive article. Thank you.
Manufacturing Operations Director
4 个月Great piece of work. I wanted some information on Sodium ion cells and frankly could not stop reading - Thank you!
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