Cognitive Amplification for Teaching and Learning

Throughout history, humans have developed and utilized tools to amplify their capabilities, transforming the way we interact with the world. As educators, designers, developers, policymakers, and researchers, we must recognize the profound impact of these tools on human cognition and their potential to revolutionize learning across the lifespan. By examining the historical evolution of technologies that enhance motor, sensory, and cognitive functions, we can gain valuable insights into the future of AI-enhanced learning and doing. In this blog post, I explore the three pillars of cognitive amplification, the effects of technology on cognitive processes, and the concept of the "person plus," highlighting the importance of utilizing these tools to transform education and empower learners.

The Three Pillars of Cognitive Amplification

In the opening of, “Technology and Cognition Ampli?cation,” Nickerson (2005) defines technology as developing and utilizing tools that amplify human capabilities in three key areas: motor, sensory, and cognitive functions. The following is an expansion of this framework, beginning with the first pillar, motor amplification, and its impact on human progress and education.

Motor Amplification

From ancient levers used to construct the Egyptian pyramids to modern power tools like electric drills and hydraulic excavators, motor-amplifying technologies have played a crucial role in enhancing human physical capabilities and driving progress throughout history. These tools, which increase muscle power, carrying capacity, and striking force, have revolutionized fields such as transportation, trade, and construction, greatly increasing efficiency and the scale of projects. In education, it is important to consider how motor-amplifying technologies can be leveraged to support hands-on learning experiences and make education more accessible to students with physical limitations, ensuring that all learners have the opportunity to engage in practical, experiential learning activities.

Sensory Augmentation

From the invention of eyeglasses in 13th century Italy (Rosen, 1956) to the development of microscopes and telescopes in 16th century Netherlands (Bardell, 1981), tools that augment sensory capabilities have revolutionized our ability to perceive the world beyond the range of our natural senses. These early innovations enhanced visual acuity and allowed for the observation of previously invisible worlds. Modern examples include the James Webb Space Telescope, which enables astronomers to study distant galaxies (Kalirai, 2018), and ultrasound machines that provide images of internal body structures (Royer, 2019). In educational settings, we should explore how these tools can enhance students' observational skills and deepen their understanding of scientific concepts, enabling them to engage with phenomena that would otherwise remain hidden from their natural senses.

Cognitive Enhancement

Tools that enhance cognitive functions, such as symbol systems, measurement devices, and computational aids, have had perhaps the most profound impact on education. The development of writing in ancient Mesopotamia (Maiocchi, 2019) and the invention of the Hindu-Arabic numeral system in India (Karpinski, 2024) are early examples of symbol systems that greatly expanded the human capacity to represent and manipulate information. The abacus, which originated in ancient Babylon and was later refined in China, is an early example of a computational device (Dilson, 1994). Modern examples include computers and software applications that perform complex calculations, store vast amounts of data, and facilitate rapid global communication and information sharing. As educators, we must critically examine how these tools can foster critical thinking, problem-solving, and creativity.

The Effects With, From, and Through Tools that Enhance Cognitive Functions

Gavriel Salomon and David Perkins (2005) explore how technology can fundamentally change and enhance cognitive functions beyond mere improvements in speed, ease of processing, or information accessibility. They propose three distinct levels at which technology influences thinking and learning: effects with, effects of, and effects through technology.

Effects With Technology

Effects with technology refer to the enhanced cognitive performance that occurs while using a tool. This is achieved through an intellectual partnership between the user and the technology, where certain cognitive functions are offloaded onto the tool. For example, using a calculator allows users to perform complex mathematical operations more efficiently and accurately. The key here is not just the technology itself but also the skilled use of it. When used effectively, cognitive technologies enable "smarter" performance by amplifying the user's cognitive capacity and perception. To further illustrate this concept, consider the following examples of cognitive amplification in various domains:

• Writing with word processors and grammar checkers: Word processing software like Microsoft Word and Google Docs, along with grammar checking tools like Grammarly, enhance users' writing performance by providing features such as spell-check, grammar suggestions, real-time feedback on style, and easy text manipulation. These tools offload cognitive tasks associated with editing and proofreading, allowing users to produce higher-quality writing with greater efficiency and ease compared to traditional pen-and-paper methods.
• Spatial navigation with GPS: GPS navigation systems enhance users' navigation performance by offloading cognitive tasks such as spatial orientation, route planning, and decision-making onto the device, allowing for more efficient and accurate navigation in unfamiliar areas.
• Problem-solving with spreadsheets: Spreadsheet applications like Microsoft Excel or Google Sheets enhance users' problem-solving capabilities by offering functions, formulas, and charting tools that enable efficient and accurate data organization, analysis, and visualization, facilitating complex calculations, pattern identification, and data-driven decision-making.
• Geographic Information Systems (GIS): GIS software enhances urban planners' decision-making capabilities by offloading significant cognitive processing associated with analyzing complex spatial datasets and generating detailed maps, allowing them to focus on strategic planning and assessing the impact of infrastructure projects on traffic flow and population distribution.
• Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software: CAD software enhances the efficiency and accuracy of the design process for engineers and architects by providing tools for automating calculations, generating 3D visualizations, and simulating various scenarios, allowing users to focus on creativity and problem-solving rather than manual drafting.

Effects Of Technology

Effects of technology describe the lasting cognitive changes that persist even after the technology is no longer in use. These changes can manifest as improved skill mastery or enhanced general cognitive skills. While harder to demonstrate than effects with technology, Salomon and Perkins cite studies that have shown gains in general skills resulting from guided interactions with symbol systems in media, programming experiences designed for reflective abstraction, and action video game playing. These residual effects suggest that engaging with cognitive technologies can lead to lasting improvements in cognitive abilities. To better understand these effects, consider the following examples:

• Learning to Program: Engaging in coding and programming activities can lead to the development of computational thinking (CT) skills, which involve using computing and information science concepts to solve problems, design and evaluate complex systems, and understand human reasoning and behavior (Buitrago Flórez et al., 2017). These CT skills, such as decomposition, pattern recognition, abstraction, and algorithmic thinking, can persist even when not actively coding and have important implications in various fields beyond computer science. For instance, individuals who have learned to program often develop enhanced abilities to break down complex problems into manageable parts, identify patterns, and think algorithmically, which can be applied to a wide range of tasks beyond programming.
• Playing Strategy Video Games: Regularly playing strategy video games like "StarCraft" or "Civilization" can improve strategic thinking and decision-making skills. Spence and Feng (2010), for example, have shown that players of action video games often develop a wide range of enhanced spatial cognitive abilities, including improved contrast sensitivity, spatial resolution, attentional visual field, enumeration, multiple object tracking, and visuomotor coordination and speed. These enhanced abilities continue to benefit players in real-life situations that require spatial cognition, such as driving, sports, and navigation. The beneficial effects of playing action video games extend beyond basic spatial tasks to more complex ones, such as mental rotation, demonstrating far transfer of learning.
• Using Educational Apps for Math: Students who use educational apps designed to teach mathematical concepts often show improved mathematical reasoning and problem-solving skills that persist after they stop using the app. For example, children who use apps that teach fractions through interactive visual aids may retain a deeper understanding of fractional relationships and proportions, helping them in future math-related tasks and subjects (Hensberry et al., 2015).

Effects Through Technology

Effects through technology represent the most profound level of influence, where technologies fundamentally reorganize and qualitatively transform cognitive activity systems and processes. Rather than merely augmenting existing processes, these technologies reshape the way cognitive tasks are approached. Literacy serves as a prime example of a technology that has profoundly transformed mental processes throughout history. In the cognitive domain, effects through technology can lead to radical changes in how we think, learn, and solve problems. To better understand these effects, consider the following examples.

• The Internet and Information Access: The Internet has fundamentally transformed how we approach learning and information gathering. Instead of relying solely on memory or physical resources like libraries, individuals now use search engines and online databases to access vast amounts of information. This shift has led to new ways of thinking about information retrieval and knowledge synthesis, emphasizing skills like critical evaluation of sources and the ability to integrate diverse pieces of information from multiple online resources.
• Collaborative Platforms and Remote Work: Tools like Slack, Microsoft Teams, and Zoom have redefined how we collaborate and work together. These technologies enable real-time communication and collaboration across geographical boundaries, leading to new organizational structures and work processes. The ability to work asynchronously and manage projects through digital platforms has transformed traditional team dynamics, promoting more flexible and dynamic approaches to problem-solving and project management.
• Artificial Intelligence in Personalized Learning: AI-driven educational platforms such as Axio use algorithms to tailor learning experiences to individual students' needs and progress. This personalization transforms traditional education by shifting from a one-size-fits-all model to a more customized learning journey. Students receive instant feedback and adaptive challenges that cater to their unique learning pace and interests, fundamentally changing the way educational content is delivered and how learners engage with it, leading to more effective and efficient learning outcomes.

The Person-Plus

Salomon and Perkins go on to argue that considering humans as "person plus" (i.e., a person plus tools and social relationships) is more appropriate than focusing solely on bare cognitive abilities. This perspective acknowledges that cognitive performance is not just a function of innate abilities but also of the tools and social context in which the person operates. By leveraging cognitive technologies and engaging in skilled use of these tools, individuals can enhance their cognitive performance beyond what would be possible with their innate abilities alone.

Final Thoughts

The historical journey of cognitive amplification, from ancient tools to modern AI-driven technologies, reveals the profound impact of these innovations on human capabilities and the way we learn and interact with the world. By examining the three pillars of cognitive amplification—motor, sensory, and cognitive enhancement—we can better understand how technology has shaped our past and how it will continue to transform our future. The effects with, of, and through technology demonstrate the varying levels at which these tools can influence our cognitive processes, from enhancing performance while using the technology to fundamentally reorganizing the way we think and learn.

As educators, designers, developers, policymakers, and researchers, it is crucial to recognize the potential of cognitive technologies to revolutionize education. By utilizing these tools and fostering their skilled use, we can create learning environments that amplify cognitive abilities, promote critical thinking, and facilitate the acquisition of knowledge and skills. Embracing the concept of the "person plus" acknowledges that cognitive performance is not solely determined by what one can do on their own but is also shaped by the tools and social context in which the individual operates.

As we move forward in an increasingly technology-driven world, it is essential to critically examine the role of tools that amplify. By drawing upon the lessons of the past and understanding the mechanisms through which these tools enhance human capabilities, we can develop innovative approaches to teaching and learning that harness the power of technology while maintaining a focus on the human element. In doing so, we can create a future in which education is more accessible, engaging, and effective, empowering learners to reach their full potential and contribute to the advancement of society.

References

Bardell, D. (1981). Eyeglasses and the discovery of the microscope. The American Biology Teacher, 43(3), 157–159. https://doi.org/10.2307/4447190

Buitrago Flórez, F., Casallas, R., Hernández, M., Reyes, A., Restrepo, S., & Danies, G. (2017). Changing a generation’s way of thinking: Teaching computational thinking through programming. Review of Educational Research, 87(4), 834–860. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654317710096

Dilson, J. (1994). The abacus. The world’s first computing system: Where it comes from, how it works, and how to use it to perform mathematical feats great and small. St. Martin’s Press.

Hensberry, K., Moore, E., & Perkins, K. (2015). Effective student learning of fractions with an interactive simulation. Journal of Computers in Mathematics and Science Teaching, 34(3), 273–298.

Kalirai, J. (2018). Scientific discovery with the James Webb Space Telescope. Contemporary Physics, 59(3), 251–290. https://doi.org/10.1080/00107514.2018.1467648

Karpinski, L. C. (2024). The Hindu-Arabic numerals. Blurb.

Maiocchi, M. (2019). Writing in early Mesopotamia: The historical interplay of technology, cognition, and environment. In A. C. Love & W. C. Wimsatt (Eds.), Beyond the meme: Development and structure in cultural evolution (pp. 395–424). University of Minnesota Press. https://doi.org/10.5749/j.ctvnp0krm.13

Nickerson, R. S. (2005). Technology and cognition ampli?cation. In R. Sternberg & D. Preiss (Eds.), Intelligence and technology: The impact of tools on the nature and development of human abilities (pp. 3–27). Routledge.

Rosen, E. (1956). The invention of eyeglasses. Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, XI(1), 13–46. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhmas/XI.1.13

Royer, D. F. (2019). Seeing with sound: How ultrasound is changing the way we look at anatomy. In P. M. Rea (Ed.), Biomedical visualisation (Vol. 2, pp. 47–56). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14227-8_4

Salomon, G., & Perkins, D. (2005). Do technologies make us smarter? Intellectual ampli?cation with, of, and through technology. In R. Sternberg & D. Preiss (Eds.), Intelligence and technology: The impact of tools on the nature and development of human abilities (pp. 95–110). Routledge.

Spence, I., & Feng, J. (2010). Video games and spatial cognition. Review of General Psychology, 14(2), 92–104. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019491