The Cave-Dwelling Jews of Libya

Among the lesser-known chapters of Jewish history are the Cave-Dwelling Jews of Libya, a community whose existence is intricately linked with the rugged landscapes of the Djebel Gharian. Set on the high plateau of the Gharian mountains, lies the cave villages of this small Jewish community of yesteryear. These subterranean cave dwellings were dug thirty to forty feet deep underground, with long and narrow tunnels winding toward a single entrance. These were intentionally narrow to allow people to proceed in single file, preventing invaders from overwhelming the cave dwellers from mass attack.[1]?

The network of dwelling areas or ‘apartments,’ which each had several rooms housing a nuclear family, were connected by a shared courtyard open to the sky, providing natural light and fresh air.?

How did Jews come to live in these cavernous homes? To understand, we must first take a look at how Jews came to Libya in the first place.?

At the beginning of 1949 there were about 35,000 Jews living in Libya.[2] Today, Libya is home to not even a single Jew. However, like so many other North African and Middle Eastern countries, the history of Jewish inhabitancy is ancient, and pre-dates the Muslim era by more than a millennium. Roman-Jewish historian Josephus suggests that Jews arrived in Libya during the rule of Ptolemy I in 323 BCE, although they may have arrived as early as the 10th century BCE during King Solomon’s reign.[3] Historian, Martin Gilbert, writes that Ptolemy settled many Jews in Cyrenaica – the Libya of antiquity which included Egypt – to strengthen his kingdom.[4] The community prospered and some historians suggest they were the largest Jewish community in the diaspora at the time, reaching numbers around one million.[5]

The situation of the Jews of Libya changed dramatically for the worse after the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE by the Roman emperor Titus. One of the emperor’s generals had brought over 30,000 Jewish captives to Libya and the Roman rulers quashed Jewish revolts and killed thousands of people in the process. Over the centuries, Jewish life in Libya had moments that were marked with more freedoms and opportunities, coupled with massacres, pogroms and forcible conversions. When the Arab crusaders invaded Libya in 670 CE, Jews, Christians and pagan Berbers joined forces to repel the attacks, but eventually either fled or remained and converted.?

Writer, traveller and historian, Nahum Slouschz, believed that many Berber tribespeople of the Tripolitanian hinterland were descended from Jews who had deserted their historical faith.[6] Jews from around the Mediterranean began to arrive in Libya, attracted by a more tolerant Muslim regime. Although they were considered dhimmi (non-Muslims living in an Islamic state), this afforded them certain protections, allowing them to live in relative security. That said, they were nonetheless obligated to pay the jizya tax,[7] wear distinctive clothing and were?forbidden from taking positions of authority. It was not until the rule of the Almohads that the Jews of Libya endured harsh physical persecution too.?

At the tail end of the 14th century and anti-Jewish massacres in Catholic Spain, many Sephardic Jews found a safe haven in Libya. One historian describes how that safety disappeared soon after with the conquest of Tripoli, “When the Spaniards captured Tripoli in 1510, they persecuted the Jews mercilessly. Many Jews were killed, imprisoned or sold as slaves. Some fled to the secure mountains of Djebel Gharian in Tripolitania, where they took refuge in caves.”[8]?

Libya saw the Ottoman conquest in 1551, which lasted four centuries with relative prosperity for the Jews. In 1911, Libya was colonised by Italy, at which point dhimmi laws were abolished and Jewish life began to flourish - but not for long. In late 1939, the Fascist Italian regime began to pass antisemitic laws, such as forcing Jewish shopkeepers to open on the Sabbath and stamping their citizenship papers with “Jewish race.” Despite these oppressive living conditions, Jews still comprised 25% of the population of Tripoli in 1941 and boasted 44 synagogues in the city.[9]???

When the Nazis occupied Tripoli in 1942, some Jews again fled to the caves of Djebel Gharian. The Jews of Benghazi, the second largest Jewish community in Libya, saw many of its members deported to the Giado concentration camp, where hundreds died from starvation and disease.?

Throughout the centuries, Libyan Jews found refuge in the caves of the Gharian hinterlands, and the community had a unique modus operandi.?

The sheikh, acting as both a political intermediary and spiritual guide, played a pivotal role in navigating the intricate relationship between the Jewish enclave and the broader governing authorities. Tasked with ensuring the community's physical security, the sheikh bore the weight of safeguarding their interests amidst shifting socio-political landscapes. During Ottoman rule, for instance, the sheikh required astute awareness of regional dynamics to effectively advocate for his people in distant centres of power.

Despite the absence of a formal salary, the sheikh’s duties included many responsibilities, from managing the community's finances for taxes and bribes, to representing their interests in official matters. This role demanded not only political acumen but also a commitment to upholding the community's social, cultural and religious values. Central to the cohesion of the Gharian Jews was their unwavering devotion to communal worship and religious traditions.?

Professor Harvey E. Goldberg, a distinguished anthropologist, documented the intricate living arrangements of the community, highlighting the unique architectural layout of their cave-dwellings. Each dwelling, or hūsh, formed a nucleus for family life, interconnected by a central courtyard where communal activities took place.

Despite the challenges of their remote existence, the Gharian Jews found solace in their shared rituals and celebrations. The pinnacle of their religious calendar was marked by the observance of Yom Kippur, where the honour of holding the Torah scroll held profound significance. Generosity towards the synagogue and active engagement with visiting rabbis underscored their commitment to nurturing their spiritual heritage.

Due to high rates of endogamy, the celebrations of circumcisions, weddings and funerals, would be attended by the entire community. Through these rites of passage, the fabric of Gharian Jewish identity was intricately woven, preserving traditions across generations.

Following Libya’s independence, most Jews, including those of the Gharian, fled to Syria, propelled by worsening conditions, including pogroms. Today, the descendants of the Gharian Jewish community reside in Israel. The caves, once inhabited by this resilient community, are now occupied by modern Libyans, who have enhanced the dwellings with electricity, running water and sewage disposal. Some of these subterranean habitats have even emerged as sought-after lodgings for those searching for ‘unique stays’ on their travels through North Africa.?

While the sands of time may have shifted the location of the Gharian Jewish community, they offer us a small glimpse into a world shaped by geography, history and faith.?

[1] Ken Blady, Jewish Communities in Exotic Places, "Cave Rabbis? Cave Synagogues?" p. 322.

[2] Harvey E. Goldberg, Cave Dwellers and Citrus Growers, p. 9.

[3] Archaeological surveys made in Sirte dated a synagogue to the 10th century BCE.

[4] Martin Gilbert, In Ishmael’s House, pp. 2-3.

[5] H Z Hirschberg, A History of the Jews of North Africa, vol. 1, page 27.

[6] Nahum Slouschz, Travels in North Africa, pp. 109-111.

[7] A tax historically levied on dhimmis

[8] Ken Blady, Jewish Communities in Exotic Places, "Cave Rabbis? Cave Synagogues?" p. 317.

[9] The Jewish Comminuty Tripoli, Beit Hatfusot Open Database Project