Leadership: A Lesson from Nature

This essay will be a bit different from my others – I hope you enjoy it.

While working on my last essay, “Leadership: Embracing Change, Paradigm Shifts, and Different Perspectives”, I ran across a paper I wrote in 1980. About the same time that I found this paper, I had an opportunity to spend some time at the New England Aquarium (NEA)?in Boston, Massachusetts. My 1980 paper, Photoreception and its Relation to Bioluminescent Countershading in Midwater Animals, and a NEA display touched on two related subjects which I’ve always found fascinating and tied back to one of the topics of my previous essay — perspectives.

To review, “perspective” refers to a way of regarding situations, facts, etc., and judging their relative importance.?There are other definitions of perspective — some simpler, others more complex — but this is adequate for this essay.

If you remember anything from this short piece, I hope it’s the following:

1. Always be open to new information and perspectives.
2. Don’t forget nature as a source of information, examples, and lessons.
3. Your perspective is influenced by your life’s journey – be self-aware and respectful.

To expand on item three, it is important to recognize that “your” perspective of a thing, a situation, or a condition, is influenced by countless factors such as what you see and from what vantage point, and where you may be physically located. Keep this in mind as we examine the following.

Perspectives & Nature

Now let’s have some fun by connecting nature and perspective from the viewpoint of whether you are a “Prey” or a “Predator.” Marine animals use various techniques to keep from being seen including being nearly transparent, combinations of texture and color patterns, and some having the ability to change color. As a marine scientist and a diver, I find two other techniques particularly fascinating – Countershading and Counter-illumination.

Countershading - or Thayer's law, is a method of camouflage in which an animal's coloration is darker on the upper (dorsal) side of their body and lighter on the underside (ventral). This pattern is found in many species of animals (both predators and prey).?

Counter-illumination?– or Bioluminescent Countershading is a method of active camouflage where some marine animals possess the capability to match their backgrounds in both brightness and wavelength.?

There are other definitions — some simpler, others more complex — but these are adequate for this discussion and its connection to “perspective.”

Countershading

Again, countershading is a method of camouflage in which an animal's coloration is darker on the upper side of its body and lighter on the underside. This pattern is found in both predators and prey in many species of mammals, reptiles, birds, fish, and insects. However, keeping with the aquatic theme of this Leadership series, I will focus on marine examples.

The black and white “tuxedo”?pattern sported by the penguin in the opening photo is a classic example of this type of camouflage. While it doesn’t help on the ice where it is all but too conspicuous (remember this for the last paragraph of this essay), in the water the pattern of black and white hides the penguin from both prey and predators. The top half (dorsal side) of the penguin is dark, so when it’s seen from above by a predator, for example a Leopard Seal,?it blends in with the dark, deep waters below it. The reverse is so when viewed from below where its white underside (ventral) blends in with the sunlit waters above.?

There are several other marine species sporting a similar two-tone look including whales and dolphins and many species of fish particularly open-water (or pelagic) species such as Atlantic Bluefin Tuna, where their upper surface (dorsal) is dark colored, and their underside (ventral) is lighter if not white so that they too are less conspicuous when seen from either above or below.

An example in the reef environment is the squid. Seen from above, it’s very difficult to see; and, if its above you, it blends in with the light from above. So, it’s almost impossible to get a good photo unless you’re fortunate enough to swim side-by-side (Photo by Author).

A related cephalopod, the cuttlefish, blends in with the sandy-brownish bottom when viewed from above, but is difficult to view from below looking towards a sunlight sky above (Photo Courtesy of the New England Aquarium).

The NEA had an excellent educational display on countershading in sharks.?Borrowing directly from their display:

• “The coloring of a shark’s skin can help it evade predators and capture prey!”
• “Many sharks have a type of camouflage known as countershading.”
• “When seen from below, the light ventral (under) side blends in with the brighter water toward the direction of the sun.”

One of the species where it is very effective is the Great White Shark, particularly in dark, deep water. Looking down into the blackness of the depths, it is sometimes virtually impossible to see these animals until they turn and slightly tilt displaying their very distinct white underside. Unfortunately, on a few occasions, such observations are at the last minute resulting in tragedy. In one very sad, first-hand account described to me in painful detail, not until the exact moment of attack (i.e., the flash of white) was anyone aware of the Great White’s presence.

If you’ll remember from my last essay, sharks are not the boogeyman. Yes, they can be dangerous, but they are also an important part of our ecosystem; they just need to be respected and precautions taken – always.

There are other examples of countershading and countless variations, theories, and suggestions including how this method of camouflage may serve multiple functions. These include, for example, how it may “counterbalance” the effects of self-shadowing which makes objects easier to detect; beneficial color and shading patterns when viewed from the side; outline obliteration; and a variety of other possibilities. These are fascinating discussions, but well beyond this short essay.

Counter-illumination (or Bioluminescent Countershading)

Counter-illumination involves the production of light from an animal’s downward-facing (ventral) surface to match the brightness and wavelength of the light from above, thus reducing the contrast of their silhouettes when viewed by a predator below. This is accomplished through a complex system of photoreceptors (or sensors) networked to a series of bioluminescent photophores. The light may be produced by the animal itself, or by symbiotic bacteria (i.e., living together) cultured in special organs, depending on the species. Experiments have clearly shown that some species could increase or decrease their bioluminescence to match overhead light. Counter-illumination has the advantage over countershading when the color tones of the animal just doesn’t quite match the background. Since counter-illumination functions through the actual production of light it is considered “active” camouflage rather than passive as with countershading.?

Many species of the mesopelagic zone (between ~400 and 1,000 m) such as some squid, crustaceans, deep ocean fishes, and even some deep water sharks use counter-illumination for camouflage from predators. Without this type of camouflage animals of the mesopelagic zone would tend to appear dark against the bright water surface when seen from below. Counter-illumination is also advantageous for nocturnal animals and open ocean, deep water species migrating to shallower depths at night allowing them to match the down-welling moonlight. For the latter, the reduction of their silhouette from down-welling light is particularly important since there is no place to hide in the open ocean (or pelagic) environment.?

Principle of the counterillumination camouflage of the firefly squid.?When seen from below by a predator, it’s bioluminescence helps to match the squid's brightness and color to the sea surface above.?Author, Ian Alexander.

While the upturned eyes and mouth of the hatchetfish?help it to identify and catch prey silhouetted above, the bioluminescent light from its ventral side matches the color and intensity of sunlight filtering down reducing its own silhouette to predators below. Borrowed from Glowing in the Dark by Edie Widder in scienceNOW?

As you might suspect, counter-illumination is an entire science involving a plethora of factors well beyond this essay. These include the number and distribution of photoreceptors and light producing photophores, and whether the light is produced by the animals themselves or by bioluminescent symbiotic bacteria, light spectrums and intensities, water temperature, etc. Also, the actual structures of the organs themselves involving almost countless variations of lenses, filters, reflectors, pigment screens, etc. are all integrated into their nervous systems. One fascinating possible derivation, for example, is that of a bioluminescent feedback mechanism where photoreceptors measure an animal’s own bioluminescence as well as downwelling light… sort of an internal quality control.

One final note (or perspective) – besides its function in helping to avoid predators, counter-illumination can also serve as a tool for the predators themselves. Some shark and squid species, for example, are believed to use counter-illumination to remain hidden from their prey to attack at just the right moment. The bottom line here is that of “perspective” and how it relates to the predator/prey relationship.

To review, the basic difference between countershading and counter-illumination is that the former uses pigments to darken the upper side of the body while the underside is lighter to (hopefully) “paint out shadows.” Counter-illumination, on the other hand, is an upgraded version whereby light is actually produced to “match” an animal’s background in both brightness and wavelength.?

Military Application

I would be remiss if I didn’t briefly touch on military applications. A quick internet search will show that discussions of countershading in nature and its potential relevance to military implication goes back to at least the First World War with experiments being conducted since the Second World War with ships, fighter aircraft, and bombers. In 1941, an Australian zoologist, William Dakin, described countershading in his book The Art of Camouflage – the book was subsequently reprinted by the military in 1942. Then, in 1943, countershading was briefly covered in the U.S. War Department’s Principles of Camouflage. It appears that the military application of countershading, and now counter-illumination, are still topics of discussion and experimentation. One can only imagine the possibilities with today’s sensors, computing capabilities, machine learning, and artificial intelligence.

Reverse Countershading

Finally, I know how frustrating it is for students (including myself) when “exceptions” to a rule, concept, theory, way of thought, etc., are presented – the above is no exception (i.e., be open minded). So, I need to throw out one final concept – Reverse Countershading. Reverse countershading is typically seen with species with strong natural defenses and where color patterns serve to enhance contrast making the animal more conspicuous to startle or warn off predators.?

While there are examples from the marine environment, there is a terrestrial example of which I am intimately familiar. Remember our penguin friend sporting the black and white “tuxedo” that helps it hide from both prey and predators? Well, the terrestrial reverse countershading example is the skunk! I only wish my Golden Retriever, Mr. Denali, recognized and appreciated the difference between countershading and its reverse analogue – it was a long night of bathing after spending time with his new playmate, “Ms. Kitty.” Photo by Bryan Padron.

Sometimes it really is all about recognizing and appreciating different perspectives! James J. Kendall, Jr. 2022

Author: Dr. James (Jim) Kendall is an oceanographer specializing in the application of science, ocean exploration, and indigenous knowledge to address marine resource issues. He has held positions in academia, private industry, and state and federal government. He currently lives in Anchorage, Alaska.

Disclaimer: This essay was prepared by Dr. James (Jim) Kendall in his personal capacity. The opinions expressed in this article are the author's own and do not reflect the views of the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, the Department of the Interior, or the United States government.

Acknowledgements: Many thanks to Johanna Blasi, Joel Immaraj, Jacob Levenson, Nollie Gildow-Owens, and Mark & Sandi Storzer for their substantive and constructive suggestions; and, to Shannon Vivian, my BFF & "The Editor!"