Bullying: Neuroscience and social science research

The literature in neuroscience and social science research is unambiguously clear: Bullying is a destructive social behaviour, which has confirmed it has a devastating neurophysiological and physiological impact on the brain and body (the hólos), and also on related cognitive, psychological and social function (Rossouw, 2010; Purnell, 2013).

Bullying can be overt or covert

Bullying self-evidently can be applied overtly as in vocally or physically. Bullying can also be applied covertly. Covert bullying can include, but is not limited to social isolation or unseen acts of bullying against another. In the covert application of bullying there is the surreptitious emic in-group form of bullying.

This is where, for example, the in-group know and understand the subtleties of the bullying that is taking place. With this, there is the added secret emic knowledge of the in-group, that the in-group know their acts of bullying are hidden to others, except the victim.

Groupthink and emic knowledge

Emic knowledge is group specific knowledge where the individuals of a group categorise their view of the world according to their own insider group membership mores, knowledge, utterances and behaviours (Kottak, 2006; Lu, 2012; Morris et al., 1999; Pike, 1967;?Vandenberg & Hall, 2011).

Group consensus

This in-group based emic knowledge has similarities to what is known as groupthink.?Baron and Byrne (1991, p. 463) describe groupthink as being a “mode of thinking, by group members, in which concerns with maintaining group consensus [takes priority over] the motivation to evaluate” or even question other “potential courses of action as accurately and realistically as possible.”

In-group emic bullying is extremely difficult to locate

This type of groupthink/in-group association, can lead to the social situations where the decisions to activate and then engage in bullying behaviours, takes place secretly and in a non-questioning manner.?This is why groupthink and in-group emic bullying is extremely difficult to locate.

However, the imperative to note here is that irrespective of what type of bullying is taking place, bullying in all of its forms has a devastating biological (brain and body – hólos) impact, as well as a devastating social (cognitive, affective and psychological) impact on the victim. Which not only results in an immediate acute stress response; it can also lead to long term, and even life changing thinking and behaviours taking place.

The acute stress response

When bullying takes place, there is an immediate acute stress response, which is also known as the fight-flight-freeze response (Arden, 2010; Rossouw, 2010). The physiology of the fight-flight-freeze response involves the autonomic nervous system, the sympathetic nervous system, and the?parasympathetic nervous system.?(Arden, 2010; Doidge, 2015; Rossouw, 2010; Suzuki, 2015).

Cascading chain reaction

When this fight-flight-freeze acute stress response happens, there is an instant cascading chain reaction of biological and complex physiological processes that follow. The amygdala responds by signalling the hypothalamus. The hypothalamus is responsible for the metabolic processes that is “involved in the autonomic nervous system” (Arden, 2010, p. 31).

This cascades to the activating the pituitary gland (Esty & Shifflet, 2014).?The pituitary gland is often considered as being the most important part of the endocrine system because it produces hormones that control, and bring about the actions of many functions of other endocrine glands that generate an immediate release of the hormones adrenaline and cortisol?(Arden, 2010; Doidge, 2015;?Esty & Shifflet, 2014;?Rossouw, 2010; Suzuki, 2015).

Sympathetic nervous system

With the onset of the bullying “the body's sympathetic nervous system?is activated due to the sudden release of hormones. The sympathetic nervous system stimulates the adrenal glands triggering the release of catecholamines” (Rossouw, 2010, p. 5). Included among the catecholamines (as noted above) is adrenaline (also known as epinephrine), and noradrenaline (which is also known as norepinephrine).

Preventions and biological support

Noradrenaline (norepinephrine) helps to prevent blood pressure from falling. The release of adrenaline also helps to ensure that glucose is sent to all parts of the body involved in the fight-flight-freeze response (Arden, 2010; Doidge, 2015;?Esty & Shifflet, 2014;?Rossouw, 2010; Suzuki, 2015).

The hólos (the brain and body) is still working

Even when the body is not moving (the deer frozen in the headlights condition); the hólos (the brain and the body) is still, internally, coursing with ‘explosive cascading biological processes, which still needs glucose and oxygen in the event that an instantaneous reactive fight-or-flight response does take place.

Stress chemicals

Associated with all of this, there is the ‘explosive’ cascading release of “adrenocorticotrophic hormone, corticotrophin-releasing factor…and cortisol” (Rossouw, 2010, p. 5), which are known as stress chemicals. These stress chemicals lead to a “reduction in the formation of effective memory systems” (p. 5), which then results in memory and recall inefficiencies.

This interferes with the learning process as well. This is happening because the stress chemicals are having a negative impact on the hippocampus. The hippocampus is where memories are formed (Arden, 2010; Doidge, 2010; 2015; Medina, 2008; Roland, 2014;?Rossouw, 2010; Suzuki, 2015).

Hippocampus impairment

The biological stress response “causes the hippocampus to shrink, through the release of glucocorticoids (a class of hormones), especially cortisol” (Roland, 2014, p. 196). The research indicates that when there is a prolonged release of cortisol, this sustained release of cortisol “destroys cells in the hippocampus, causing memory loss” (p. 196). This destruction of neurons in the hippocampus results in significant memory and learning impairment; both in the short term and long term (Roland, 2014, Rossouw, 2010, Suzuki, 2015).?

Reduction in effective and competent communication abilities

Associated with this, there is a significant reduction in effective and competent communication abilities. The victim may not be able to talk coherently. This may suggest there is a condition of confused thinking.

Highly inefficient

The victim of the bullying is now (biologically, cognitively, emotionally, behaviourally and socially) functioning at what could only be described in a highly inefficient manner. It is important to note is that this biological, personal and social inefficient functioning may remain in place for some time post-bullying. This could suggest that the prefrontal cortex (the executive and symbolic thinking part of the brain has been neurologically impacted by the bullying (Arrowsmith-Young, 2012; Doidge, 2010, 2015; Medina; Rossouw, 2010; Suzuki).

Executive thinking and the prefrontal cortex

When bullying takes place the neural and cognitive efficiency of the brain and mind is severely compromised as a result of the acute stress response. The acute stress response leads to the situation where?neural communication efficiency (to and from the prefrontal cortex)?is?significantly compromised and reduced.

This often results in confused and inefficient levels of thinking and associated communication taking place; there is also an impact on learning abilities?(Arden, 2010; Arrowsmith-Young, 2012; Doidge, 2010, 2015; Medina; Rossouw, 2010; Suzuki).

Uncontrollable incongruence

In addition to this, there is “an increased experience of uncontrollable incongruence that inhibits proliferation of open neural connections and growth” (Rossouw, 2010, p. 6). This then leads to an immediate reduction in neural growth, open neural activation, and there is an associated reduction in the “cortical blood flow to the frontal regions of the neo cortex, with accompanying impairments in the ability to problem solve and/or to use self-soothing strategies.”

Self-soothing strategies

Other descriptors for to understanding self-soothing strategies are: self-care, looking after oneself, self-love. In terms of actual actions, this could include focussed breathing; taking occasional deep breaths; sitting down and having a warm cup of milk or, if permitted at school a warm cup of tea; taking a leisurely walk; walking and talking with another.

The research indicates

The point being made here is that the research indicates that once the bullying situation has been removed, and if the student is presenting a calmer behaviour, this suggests that the stress catecholamines and hormones are no longer having a biological impact. Because of this, self-soothing cognitive and action based strategies can begin to be applied.

A?new physiological situation

When this happens, a?new physiological situation will arise where there is now the opportunity for the brain to release the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which further assists with the implementation of self-soothing strategies (Arden, 2010).??In conjunction with this recovery which is now taking place, there will also be a release of the neurohormone oxytocin (Arden, 2010; Doidge, 2015).

An elevation of mood

The release of oxytocin brings with it an elevation of mood, which then brings with an affective feeling of well-being. This cascades to a release of dopamine and serotonin. Serotonin has a mood calming effect. Dopamine also helps to elevate the mood; and this can also help with the victim now being able to focus more broadly on their social and geographical (Arden, 2010; Doidge, 2015; Roland 2014).

Physiological recovery response

The physiological recovery response, through the release of dopamine, serotonin and oxytocin has also been associated with exercise. Exercise helps with the release of dopamine, serotonin and oxytocin; as well as brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). This is where walking and talking could further assist in the recovery phase (Arden, 2010; Doidge, 2010, 2015; Roland, 2014).

BDNF

“One of the most important players in both neuroplasticity and neurogenesis is … brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)” (Arden, 2010, p. 11, italics in original). In terms of its neurological and overall brain functioning importance, it has been found that brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) not only helps to propagate, “and maintain the infrastructure of cell circuitry” (Arden, 2010, p. 11), BDNF also helps to make active the genes that increases the production of even more brain derived neurotrophic factor proteins and also the neurotransmitter serotonin (Arden, 2010, Suzuki, 2015).

Synapse attachment

In addition to this, BDNF has the capacity to attach itself to synapse receptors. As a consequence of this BDNF and synaptic receptor binding, this results in the synapse being able to trigger a cascading flow of ions that leads to an increase in the transmission voltage at the synapse. This process helps to strengthen the connections “between the neurons” (Arden, 2010, p. 11), which brings with it physiological capacity that these neurons will now tend to fire together.

Indirectly activated

Brain derived neurotrophic factor is also indirectly activated by the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate. This action helps to increase the production of protective proteins and also that of internal antioxidants. All of which helps with biological, cognitive and social following a bullying situation.

The evidence is unambiguous

The neurophysiological, physiological, psychological and social evidence is clear; bullying has a devastating effect on the brain and body (the hólos) and the overall life of the victim. Drawing on the principles and practices presented in Responsibility Theory (Purje, 2014), bullying can be addressed by focussing on personal responsibility, of the potential bully.

Personal announcements

This could be as simple as having students announce at the start of the day, “I will not bully anyone today.” And at the end of the day, before the student leave school, the students announce: “I have not bullied anyone today.” As Purje (2014) points out this personal internally focussed process is about the power of self-talk and its capacity to assist students with to self-manage their behaviour; which the research shows helps student to monitor and self-regulate their behaviour. This leads to the power of self-talk. The value, importance and the power value of self talk will now be examined.

SAXTON SPEAKERS: https://www.saxton.com.au/speakers/ragnar-purje

RESPONSIBILITY THEORY??https://www.amazon.com.au/s?k=RESPONSIBILITY+THEORY&rh=n%3A2496751051&ref=nb_sb_noss