Beyond Intelligence: How Childhood Poverty Shapes Success and the Power of Early Interventions

Introduction

In 2024, South Korean Kim Young-hoon was recognized for having the highest recorded IQ, scoring 276. For context, the threshold for genius is around 145. Kim Young-hoon’s IQ is nearly double that. At just 35, Dr. Young-hoon has three undergraduate degrees (Philosophy, Theology, Sociology), two master’s degrees (Counseling, Neuroscience), and three honorary doctorates (EdD, DSc, DPsych). His achievements bring us back to the origins of IQ testing, created by Lewis Terman, an American psychologist who was deeply interested in intelligence.

Born in 1877, Terman was fascinated by intelligence. He was inspired by the eugenics movement, which aimed to improve the human “breed.” Terman did not just want to understand intelligence — he also supported policies like forced sterilization for those he deemed “feebleminded.” Despite his controversial views, Terman’s IQ test became the gold standard for measuring intelligence. In 1921, he started one of the longest-running studies on intelligence, called the “Genetic Studies of Genius.”

Terman’s study followed 1,528 children with IQ scores above 135 for decades. He wanted to see how their intelligence shaped their lives. He expected these gifted kids to succeed, but the findings were surprising. Terman’s work showed that more than intelligence was needed. Socioeconomic factors play a considerable role in shaping people’s futures. Poverty often held back even the most talented individuals, showing that systemic inequalities create barriers that are tough to break.

Cognitive and Educational Impacts

The harmful effects of poverty on cognitive development and education are well-known. Impoverished children tend to have smaller brain volumes in areas like the hippocampus, which is important for memory and learning (Dufford et al., 2020). This leads to poorer school performance and fewer opportunities for higher education, making it harder to escape poverty (Duncan et al., 2011; Oberg, 2003). For example, children from families earning less than $10,000 a year are more likely to have emotional and behavioral problems, which affects their education (Oberg, 2003). Studies also show that persistent poverty in childhood increases the likelihood of dropping out of high school by 13% and reduces college completion rates by 43% (Bellani & Bia, 2017).

Health and Psychological Outcomes

Childhood poverty affects long-term health, too. Chronic stress from poverty disrupts the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, leading to mental health issues like depression and anxiety (Liao et al., 2021). Early-life adversity also reduces activation in the prefrontal cortex, which affects decision-making and emotional control (Dufford et al., 2020). Poor physical health is common too — lack of good nutrition and unstable housing often cause developmental delays. Homeless children, in particular, have slower cognitive development compared to housed, but still poor, peers (Oberg, 2003).

Economic Impacts and Intergenerational Transmission

The economic effects of growing up in poverty last well into adulthood. Poor education usually means lower earning potential (Bellani & Bia, 2017). Structural barriers and a lack of resources make it tough to move up the economic ladder (Duncan et al., 2011). Adverse childhood experiences, like family dysfunction or neglect, can also increase the risk of poverty in adulthood, often linked to mental health struggles like depression (Liao et al., 2021).

Policy Implications

The good news is that early interventions can make a difference. Programs like the Perry Preschool Project and the Abecedarian Program show that investing in early childhood education can have long-lasting benefits. The Perry Preschool Project, started in the 1960s, targeted disadvantaged African American children in Ypsilanti, Michigan. It provided quality preschool education and home visits by teachers. The results were impressive — higher graduation rates, increased earnings, reduced crime, and better job stability (Heckman et al., 2010). This showed that early education can break the cycle of poverty and help entire communities.

The Abecedarian Program, launched in the 1970s, provided early education for low-income children in North Carolina from infancy to preschool. Unlike Perry, it started in infancy and offered continuous support. The results were striking — participants showed gains in cognitive development, academic performance, and health (Campbell et al., 2002). Long-term studies showed that participants were more likely to graduate from college, find stable jobs, and maintain better health than peers who did not receive the intervention (Campbell et al., 2014). This highlights the importance of starting early and sticking with it.

Financial support programs like the Child Tax Credit (CTC) in the United States also show promise. The expanded CTC, which was briefly implemented, helped families meet basic needs like food, healthcare, and housing while allowing parents to invest in their children’s future (Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, 2022; Shaefer et al., 2022). Similar programs, like Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) in the U.S. and Mexico’s Oportunidades, provide direct financial help to low-income families. These programs reduce immediate hardship and have long-term educational and health benefits (Duncan et al., 2021). Financial stability allows families to make better decisions for their children’s well-being.

These examples show that early, targeted interventions — whether through education or financial support — can make a real difference. To lessen poverty’s impact, governments and institutions need to focus on early education programs and financial support systems that meet the short-term and long-term needs of low-income families. A comprehensive approach is crucial for creating opportunities and breaking the cycle of poverty.

Conclusion

Childhood poverty has long-term effects on adult success, affecting cognitive development and economic stability. Addressing systemic poverty requires investment in childhood development. Addressing childhood poverty takes more than quick fixes — it requires systemic change. Investing in early interventions can remove the barriers that hold back many promising young people. Programs like the Perry Preschool Project, the Abecedarian Program, and financial support like the Child Tax Credit show that real change is possible. However, it all comes down to our commitment. If we are genuinely dedicated to fairness, we must make sure that every child, regardless of their background, has the opportunity to succeed.

The effects of childhood poverty are apparent, but we must act. By working to create better opportunities for all children, we can build a society that values everyone’s potential. Breaking the cycle of poverty means implementing thoughtful policies, effective early programs, and consistent support. We can and should challenge systemic inequalities.

References

• Bellani, L., & Bia, M. (2017). The long-run impact of childhood poverty and the mediating role of education. IZA Discussion Papers, №10677. https://www.iza.org/publications/dp/10677
• Campbell, F. A., Ramey, C. T., Pungello, E., Sparling, J., & Miller-Johnson, S. (2002). Early childhood education: Young adult outcomes from the Abecedarian Project. Applied Developmental Science, 6(1), 42–57.
• Campbell, F. A., Wasik, B. H., Pungello, E., Burchinal, M., Barbarin, O., Kainz, K., … & Ramey, C. T. (2014). Adult outcomes as a function of an early childhood educational program: An Abecedarian Project follow-up. Developmental Psychology, 50(1), 176–187. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034858
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• Liao, H., Yan, C., Ma, Y., & Wang, J. (2021). Impact of adverse childhood experiences on older adult poverty: Mediating role of depression. Frontiers in Public Health, 9, 749640. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.749640
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• Shaefer, H. L., Collyer, S., & Harris, D. (2022). The impact of the Child Tax Credit on family well-being. Social Service Review, 96(1), 54–78.