ARCHITECTURE – A SYNTHESIS OF ART, CULTURE, CLIMATE & BELIEFS
*Ar. J.K.GUPTA
Email- [email protected]
1. INTRODUCTION
Architecture, as an art and science, is visualized as mother of all arts besides the matrix of built form and human civilization. Every nation houses enormous wealth of architectural heritage acquired over a period of time. The heritage comprises of numerous buildings created over different periods by dynasties which make their footprints on the land. The built heritage is the outcome and synthesis of culture, traditions and beliefs of the people and advancement of building technology prevalent at that time. Heritage, known as the index of civilization and its mirror, reflects the aspirations, approach and achievements of a society. In majority of cases, major drivers of architecture has been the religion and its guiding principles. Creation of gigantic religious structures, laced with exquisite carving, inscriptions and decorations are the outcome of great faith, belief and commitment prevalent in the domain of religion and competency in the building design and construction. In the Indian context, it was the Islamic architecture which made enormous contribution to the Indian built heritage. It ushered a new era in the art and science of building industry through innovations and concepts which Islamic architecture brought and embedded in Indian architecture.
With history spanning over five century, Islamic architecture has left firm and distinct footprints on the Indian architecture. These footprints hold great relevance both locally and globally. The new architecture emerged under the patronage of Islamic rulers, had its outcome in juxta-positioning beliefs. The new paradigms in Indian architecture had its genesis in the synthesis of advanced knowledge of building design and construction technique of Islamic master craftsmen and Indian art of construction using stone as the raw material.New order brought forth most beautiful structures despite the fact that they followed distinct ideals, beliefs and approach to life and religion. The common platform available was the firm belief in their religion, which led to the creation of structures glorifying God in all his manifestations. While Hinduism created buildings dedicated to religion and royalty, Islam created two distinct sets of buildings revolving around religion and secularism. Islamic period is credited with creating large number of beautiful structures within the available period of 500 years. Buildings created followed a distinct pattern and were the products of well defined principles. Approach was formal and materials used were diverse. Construction of buildings was dictated by new materials and new technologies.
Making buildings grand in scope and style was the underlying principle of building design and construction. Building construction involved numerous elements which hold their relevance and importance even in the present context. Courtyards were used extensively as integral part of building design particularly dedicated to the religion where faithful could pray. Tombs defined a new regime of building vocabulary for commemorating the dead with the finest example of Taj Mahal. Bringing in culture of arch and creation of domes redefined the skyline and overall profile of Indian buildings. Use of colored mosaic tiles and inscriptional writings made value addition and changed the exterior fa?ade of the buildings. Love for nature and respects for local flora and fauna besides making nature integral part of buildings led to innovations in the art and science of landscape design. Focus on entrance led to the creation of new style of architecture which redefined the role and importance of approach to buildings. Accordingly, numerous designs for darwazas were put in place depending on the use, purpose and category of buildings it served. The construction was not limited in the domain of buildings only but also extended to planning and designing of cities. Thus town planning was given a new theme and distinct set of principles which defined the art and science of planning of towns based on site, orientation, climate, nature, zoning and security.Considering the role and importance and contribution of Islamic architecture to Indian art and science of building design and construction paper has tried to list few of the fundamental and critical elements of Islamic architecture which gave built environment a new theme, which hold great relevance even today. They have been detailed below in brief, based on the limited knowledge of rich and vast architectural vocabulary of Islamic architecture available in India.
2. HIGH RISE STRUCTURES
Islamic architecture has the distinction of introducing high rise structures in India for the first time in the 12th century, with the construction of Qutub Minar which stands 72.5 meters tall with diameter of 14.3m at the base and 2.7 m at the top. With 360 steps, Minar is the tallest free standing masonry structure in the world. Qutub Minar, the tower of victory has been made possible through the combination of the inspired vision of Muslim rulers and creative genius of Indian crftsmen. Qutub Minar is the classical example of architecture and construction advancement of the period because it laid down and defined basic principles and approach to be followed in the construction of tall buildings including the manner in which load of structures should be transmitted to the ground and to make the structure safe from the impact of natural forces.
In the words of Satish Grover, “Even after more than 800 years of buildings in Delhi and hundreds of architectural experiments, the Qutub Minar remains the most eye catching monument in the capital of Delhi.” The Minar is designed to give a look of verticality which is periodically broken by balconies projected at each floor with elaborate system of support. Each floor has a distinct character which provides new architectural theme to the Minar including unity in diversity. The lowest floor has wedge shaped flanges alternating with rounded flutes, whereas the circular projections mark the second floor. The third floor has a star shaped pattern whereas fourth floor is simply rounded. All these combine to place the entire structure on a different pedestal. The most fascinating part of Minar is balconies and the manner in which they are supported and transmit their weight to the main structure. The magnificent inscriptions made have its role in making the Minar more distinct and distinguished.
Looking at the entire context Percy Brown describes “Qutub Minar as one of the most impressive conception, the vivid color of its red sandstone, the changing texture of its fluted stories, with their overlay of inscriptional bands, the contrast between the alternating spaces of plane masonry and rich carving, the shimmer of the shadow under the balconies, all combined produce an effect of marked vitality. The tapering cylindrical appearance purposely designed to give the entire structure an upward impulse and illusion of increased height with perhaps most pronounced quality of stability, absolute and immutable with decreasing shape, based on the principal of the pyramids in Egypt, illustrating that it was intended man’s highest endeavour to make the work timeless.”
3. LANDSCAPING
Making landscaping as an art and science and integral part of architecture/ built environment found its genesis in India during Islamic period. Buildings were never conceived in isolation They were made integral part of site. Site selected to house the public/religious buildings were invariably large enough to accommodate other elements/features besides the buildings. Therefore entire design approach revolved around the planning of a complex in which buildings were strategically placed. Treating building as part of large complex helped in creating a fore court and side open spaces, a grand entrance and broad avenues from which glory of building could be fully appreciated by the visitors. Thus buildings were conceived and positioned as the heart of a grand lush green area which was carefully designed and beautifully landscaped. The art of landscaping during the Islamic period was invariably a symmetrical arrangement made around formal layout consisting of four quadrants i.e. Charbagh. The concept of landscaping had its genesis in the rulers having love for nature. The commitment to nature can be seen from the fact that it is said Firoz Shah Tughlaq is credited with creating 1200 gardens around Delhi during his regime. Starting from the conceptual frame work of garden comprising of groves of trees, clusters of flowers and free flowing rivulets of water, the gardens were transformed into a refined manmade framework superimposed by geometrical patterns. Instead of trees forming a cluster they were dispersed and planted in rows and at strategic points to form avenues. Water was made to flow in rigid channels laid in the cardinal axis of building, punctuated by fountains at regular intervals. Rows of flowers formed the edges and flagged the path to become as decorative borders for the grass planted within the square quadrangles. Mughal gardens specified a new pattern and agenda in landscaping
In addition to gardens forming integral part of buildings/tombs, landscaped gardens were also created over the strategic sites to include pleasure resorts. Sites chosen had enough availability of natural water supply besides flora and fauna. Water and manmade geometric pattern formed the basis of landscaping. Potential of the site was fully exploited in the design of gardens. Concept of terraced gardens was first introduced during Islamic period where undulating sites were designed as stepped gardens. Despite the fact, basic elements were same; each public garden had its distinct character. Squares, rectangles, octagons formed the basis to evolve new geometrical patterns in the gardens. Hard and soft surfaces were balanced delicately. Gardens were invariably enclosed with a high wall to maintain privacy, define the spaces and to give them a distinct identity. Layouts were dictated by rigid geometry and style belonging to school of formalists rather than naturalists with the prime aim of introducing a discipline. Art of landscaping found its culminates during the Mughal period in which gardens were created in a manner to capture nature in a manmade framework juxtaposing and highlighting the contrast between them. Shalimar, Nishat Bagh in Kashmir, Shalimar Bagh in Lahore, Mughal Gardens at Pinjore and gardens forming part of Taj Mahal are the few of the classical and most valued examples of Islamic Architecture in the art of landscaping in India. Landscape Garden on the pattern of Mughal Gardens was also created within the residence of Governor General (now Rashtrapati Bhawan) in the designing of New Delhi in the pre-independence period during the British rule.
4. COURTYARDS
Considering the distinct advantage of courtyards as providers of air, light and ventilation in the interior of buildings, as a place for assembly, place of undertaking social activities, for maintaining the ambient temperature within the buildings and as connectors of buildings so created, courtyards have been extensively used during the Islamic period as integral part of various categories of buildings including cultural, residential, religious, institutional, etc.
The art of using courtyards as place of assembly was perfected in the designing of religious buildings (Jama Masjid) where courtyards were designed and used for facilitating assembly of people and offer prayers. Courtyards offered best options for allowing direct contact between worshippers, forming orderly aligned rows uninterrupted by columns, walls etc, sealing of prayer area from external noises/interruptions and opportunity of hearing the preacher with clarity. Accordingly, large courtyards were created, enclosed with colonnaded structures as integral part of mosque design. However, in number of cases, instead of one courtyard, number of colonnaded courtyards were added symmetrically, around the existing courtyard to enlarge the space and capacity of the mosque to accommodate more faithfuls.In addition to using courtyards extensively in religious and secular buildings, courtyards also formed important part of houses. Considering the role of privacy and air, light and ventilation, inner courtyards emerged as the most important and valued element of residential buildings. Houses were generally designed with courtyard as the hub, around which the entire family life of the inhabitants gravitated.
Courtyard also allowed interior doors and windows to open into it for improving air, light and ventilation in the house. Since the courtyards were largely protected from external air currents, it provided a valuable check on the infiltration of smoke, dust inside the house. Upper air current remained hovering over the courtyard and would only traverse, if cross ventilation was permitted by opening the front door of the house. Courtyards were also considered valuable during hot season, where they acted as areas of large heat dump. Introducing water features and using mechanism of cross-ventilation were discovered to have great potential in making the house cool through the courtyards. Critical role and importance of courtyards as an essential element of designing state of art and energy efficient buildings has been well appreciated and accepted in the parlance of modern architecture. Iconic buildings like India Habitat Centre, New Delhi, which has been constructed in the post-independence period, has made extensive use of courtyard as the most important part of building design.
5. ENTRANCE
Islamic architecture has the distinction of viewing the important buildings not in isolation but as a balanced composition of number of buildings dictated by principles of urban design. Besides placing various buildings in an array, which justify their utility and operational efficiency, these buildings were designed to be approached through a gateway, which itself was designed as integral part of the complex. Therefore, entrance to the complex became one of the most valued and critical element of design. Besides providing access, entrance was designed to showcase the glory and majesty of the complex. Entrances became ceremonial gateway and were designed with great care and sensitivity matching the buildings inside the complex. The gates were not considered merely as architectural, engineering and structural elements but a unique solution of common problem of ceremonial gateway. It not only impressed the viewer but also evoked sensation of momentary shelter as he passed underneath it. In this process, entrance became critical element of overall design.
Buland Darwaja represents one of the classical example of showcasing an entrance to the city of Fatehpur Sikri which related man to architectural power of gateway. The approach was made grand by elevating the structure to a height of 42 feet from the ground, approached through a grand flight of ever widening steps. Entrance is designed like a huge arch flanked by thin minarets and chamfered surface to highlight the verticality of the high portal. Arch is recessed and provided with openings to provide relief to the great fa?ade. Light and shade generated by the recessed arch has given a new articulation to space enclosed by the entrance.
Entrances were designed as a composition of solids and voids duly punctuated by bands created of stone and motifs, deeply recessed in order to give an impression of welcome and invitation to the entire complex. Structures were chamfered in order to provide adequate depth to the entrance which was again flanked by thin minarets. The chamfered surfaces were treated as highly balanced composition of solids and voids to enable interplay of light and shade. The solid and voids created a perfect balance and reduced the harshness of the solid surfaces and the materials which went into the making of structure. As against a huge arch at the entrance, the chamfered surfaces had multiple arches to give a sense of number of stories and height of the structure and to break the structure into number of smaller elements. As against artistically carved out facades, the rear of gateway was made a plain, pile of stemmed down masonry in order to quietly merge it into the cloisters of the courtyard. The massive gateways were put in place to create a message that world is a bridge, pass over it, but build no houses upon it. The concept of grand entrance still finds high degree of importance and relevance in the present day architecture.
6. DOME
Dome for roofing in India was introduced for the first time by the Islamic architecture. Dome changed the profile of buildings from purely flat to vertical. Necessity to cover large spans, without any physical and visual barriers to meet the basic needs of tombs and mosques, lead to the necessity of finding an alternate system of roofing. Flat roofing prevalent in India had the limitation of creating very small spans supported on the beams and brackets, which was incapable to cover large spaces. Since no mortar was used in the stone, construction of the buildings , accordingly covered spans remained relatively small. Large covered spaces invariably had number of columns to support, leading to repeated subdivision of space into smaller parcels. This lead to the creation of not only physical, but also visual obstruction and creating numerous barriers in the optimization of space utilization. In order to overcome this limitation and handicap, concept of dome was brought in, and used extensively in the buildings under Islamic architecture. Design of dome underwent repeated review and revision, which made it more effective and efficient in terms of spanning large areas without any Intermediate support Construction of domes had its genesis in the system of arches, which was also brought into India under Islamic Period. Arches were used to support the base of dome. Use of mortar with rubble masonry was for the first time used in India in covering spaces using dome as the roof. Domes are not only the product of architectural genius but also of structural marvel. Gol-Gumbaz in Bijapur is the classical example of highest level of perfection achieved in the domain of the construction of the large domes. With height spanning over 200 feet from the ground, hemispherical dome of Bijapur was constructed over the simple square of 136 feet. Circular dome supported by cube below, marks the phase of transition from cube to dome. Earlier the domes were supported by lintels places on series of arches created across the corner of the cube below depending on the size of dome. This method had the limitation of supporting only smaller spans and creating domes of smaller diameter. In order to overcome this problem in Gol-Gumbaz, Bijapur, system of intersecting arches was introduced which divided the square into a octagon over which a circular ring of the masonry, acting as the drum for construction of dome, was created.
Construction of dome also brought in and introduced new material and new construction technology ,which also continued to be followed in subsequent period. Brick masonry cast in concrete formed out of a mix of ballast and rich lime mortar was used for the construction of dome. This formed a homogenous shell/mono blocks of virtual brick reinforced concrete. Bijapur dome covered the largest uninterrupted floor space in the world which is of the order of more than 18000 sq. ft. Evolution of dome however was the product of series of efforts made in the use of material and construction techniques which found its culmination, perfection and elegance in Taj Mahal at Agra. Domes still remain relevant and forms important part of Indian architecture besides a valuable method to cover the large spans. Domes have been used extensively as integral part of architectural vocabulary and shall continue to be used by architects to redefine and provide distinct shape, profile and personality to the building.
7. TOWN PLANNING
In addition to creating large number of religious and public buildings in India, Islamic period is also credited with construction of number of capital cities. These capital cities were created on virgin territory away from existing settlements. These cities were supposed to be self-contained in terms of meeting the basic needs of protection from invaders, defense, royal residences, public buildings and residences of royal army and support system. The cities were accordingly walled to protect the rulers and were never large. Site chosen was invariably strategic. Numbers of such cities were built within and outside Delhi during Islamic period. Fatehpur Sikri remains one of the most beautiful living examples of Islamic skill in the domain of planning of capital cities.
Over a period of time, the city planning underwent numerous changes in terms of location, planning and architectural elements. Earlier when the need of defense was more acute, the new towns sites in case of Delhi were located strategically on Aravali Hills, where site commanded strategic view of the adjoining areas. However when the requirements of defense were diluted, the cities were moved to new sites, away from Aravali and closer to the banks of Yamuna in the North, in order to ensure not only abundant supply of fresh air and water but also a serene and grand view of majestic Yamuna to the city and its residents. The tradition was followed in number of towns which were set up subsequently. Besides making a distinct choice of site, the planning of capital city was based on the principle that longer side should face the river which will provide enough options for location of the palace complex along the river for reason of safety and view.Entry to the city was placed on the opposite side of the river which had buildings directly dedicated to use of public which facilitated royalty-public interaction without interfering in the normal process of functioning of capital city.
Entire city was planned along a central axis with area divided into squares and rectangular courtyards which housed variety of structures juxtaposed in nature and gardens. Placing of buildings was done in a manner in order to enable the buildings to communicate with one another and not remain in isolation. The communication between the buildings was the outcome of planning the city on the principles of urban design. The entire planning revolved around Diwan-I-Khas, which was designed to be the heart of the city with all royal buildings placed on farther side along the river front duly protected by army barracks. Other structures were located on the opposite side with access limited to common public to the Diwan-I-Aam. This in nutshell defined the basic framework which was followed in the planning of subsequent cities in Delhi.
The culmination of town planning during the Islamic period can be found in the city of Fatehpur Sikri built by the Akbar on a site 26 miles west of Agra. Located on the rugged hills of Sikri, capital city was built and was said to house more than 2, 00,000 population at zenith-more than population of London and Rome at that time. The city comprised of great complexes of royalty, residential official and religious buildings grouped to form one of the most spectacular complex.
PANCH MAHAL, FATEHPUR SIKRI
The planning of Fatehpur Sikri was dictated largely by:
? Function, orientation, topography, security and aesthetics which guided the destiny of city.
? Flexible planning dictated by broad zoning.
? Absence of formal streets with arrangement of broad terraces and stately courtyards around which palaces and pavilions were grouped together.
? Absolute freedom to design the buildings under the overall framework of development controls.
? Service areas including waterworks, sarais etc located on outskirts.
? Public areas including courts, Jami masjid etc grouped around king/queen residences. Most strategic location given to royal buildings.
? Rigid adherence to the orientation.
? Cardinal axis dictated the location of the buildings with secular buildings placed along north-south axis. Jami Masjid placed on west around east-west axis.
? Existing topography retained for reasons of economy and environmental considerations.
? Locally available material, i.e. sandstone used as the basic materials for construction of buildings.
? Sandstone building components cut as per standards and made available to the people/craftsman for rapid construction of buildings on the basis of pre-cast units.
? Building,s position determined in geometrical relationship based on the system of multiple axis.
Conceptually Fatehpur Sikri put in place a new paradigm in city planning where streets became public spaces with buildings grouped around it. Normal hassles of traffic were avoided and city emerged as a pedestrian city. Its operational mechanism closely related to human scale, which made Fatehpur Sikri as the most humane and sustainable urban settlement. With flexibility being the guiding principle, a new concept was put in place for the rational planning and development of human settlements. Use of local materials with buildings design guided by the cardinal principles of functionality, orientation, topography and aesthetics to create sustainable buildings and cities find their relevance and importance even in the present day architectural and planning vocabulary. Art of planning and designing with site was perfected in the planning and development of the city. Fatehpur Sikri thus demonstrated a new vision, approach and conceptual framework in the art and science of town planning and architecture which was hitherto unknown.
8. CONCLUSION
Looking at the entire gamut, Islamic Architecture made rapid and enormous impact, hitherto unknown, in the parlance of built environment in India and contributed extensively to its growth and development. The glory, uniqueness, sensitivity and variety, which vernacular architecture has demonstrated in India can be largely attributed to the synthesis between Islamic and Hindu Architecture. Despite operating in an environment with different thoughts, ideas and approach, it gave a new theme, focus and expression to architecture in India. Decorative lettering pattern of wall surfaces in colored marble and glazed tiles were introduced for the first time in the Indian buildings during this period which was primarily the period of formal approach adopted in building design and use of materials. Variety and diversity were introduced through innovative methods of construction and new building techniques. Art of constructing dome introduced to bridge the large spans Planning of towns and cities was given a new theme and put on a different pedestal, hitherto unknown. This pattern of Architecture is largely the outcome of techno-scientific and artistic creative principles of architecture and is primarily based on the organic relationship between people’s need and their social and climatic environment. Accordingly, adopting natural ventilation, use of human skill, building forms dictated by building functions and ornamentation emerged as the basic principles of Islamic Architecture, holding great relevance and reverence even in the modern architecture.
For achieving order, beauty and harmony in buildings, Islamic Architecture made optimum use of close relationship between mathematics and architecture. It used proportions based on the ratio of 1:√2 in the design of buildings. Accordingly, plan of buildings was largely made square and elevations were obtained by making projections from the diagonals of the plan. This method was also used in determining dimensions of the various horizontal and vertical components of buildings including projections, moldings and cornices.
Considering the large variety of buildings constructed, innovations brought in building design, use of materials and construction technology, Islamic period can be labeled as the most fascinating, innovative and experimental in the art and science of architecture, landscaping and town planning. Its relevance will continue to define contours of Indian buildings and human settlements in the years to come.
This article is based on the valuable material available in the books on Indian Architecture (Islamic Period by Percy Brown and Islamic Architecture in India by Satish Grover), which is gratefully acknowledged.
Author:
Ar. JIT KUMAR GUPTA
Former Chief Town Planner, SPCL
344/40-A, Chandigarh – 160036.
Email: [email protected]