Arab Conquest of Egypt

Egypt In The Byzantine Empire

At the onset of the Muslim conquest of North Africa, Egypt?was part of the Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire, with the capital in Constantinople. The province held strategic importance for its grain production and naval yards, and as a base for further conquests in Africa. Shortly before the Muslim conquest, Egypt had been conquered by the Persian Empire?(619–629). However, Emperor Heraclius?re-captured it after a series of campaigns against the Sassanid Persians, only to lose it to the Muslim Rashidun army?ten years later. Before the Muslim?conquest of Egypt began, the Byzantines had already lost the Levant?and their Arab ally, the Ghassanid Empire , to the Muslims. All of this left the Byzantine Empire dangerously exposed and vulnerable.

Rashidun Conquest

The Rashidun Caliphate?was the Islamic caliphate?in the earliest period of Islam, comprising the first four caliphs. It was founded after Muhammad’s death in 632 (year 11 AH?in the Islamic calendar). At its height, the caliphate controlled an empire from the Arabian Peninsula?and the Levant to the Caucasus?in the north, North Africa?from Egypt?to present-day Tunisia?in the west, and the Iranian plateau?to Central Asia?in the east. Caliph Umar conquered more than 2,200,000?km2 area in less than ten years and is known as the most powerful caliph in the history of Islam.

In 639, some 4,000 Rashidun troops led by Amr ibn al-As?were sent by Umar to conquer the land of the ancient pharaohs. The Rashidun army crossed into Egypt from Palestine and advanced rapidly into the Nile Delta. The imperial garrisons retreated into the walled towns, where they successfully held out for a year or more. But the Muslims sent for reinforcements and the invading army, joined by another 12,000 men in 640, defeated a Byzantine army at the Battle of Heliopolis. Amr next proceeded in the direction of Alexandria, which was surrendered to him by a treaty signed in November 641. The Thebaid?seems to have surrendered with scarcely any opposition.

Early Islamic Egypt

Following the first surrender of Alexandria, Amr chose a new site to settle his men, near the location of the Byzantine fortress of Babylon. The new settlement was called Fustat. Fustat quickly became the focal point of Islamic Egypt and—with the exception of the brief relocation to Hulwan during a plague in 689, and the period of 750–763, when the seat of the governor moved to Askar—the capital and residence of the administration. After the conquest, the country was initially divided in two provinces, Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt with the Nile Delta. In 643/4, however, Caliph Uthman appointed a single governor, resident at Fustat, with jurisdiction over all of Egypt. The governor would in turn nominate deputies for Upper and Lower Egypt. Alexandria remained a distinct district, reflecting both its role as the country’s shield against Byzantine attacks and as the major naval base.

The main pillar of the early Muslim rule and control in the country was the military force, or jund, provided by the Arab settlers. These were initially the men who had followed Amr and participated in the conquest. The followers of Amr were mostly drawn from the Yamani. Although limited in number, they held many privileges and a protected status of prestige.

In return for a tribute of money and food for the occupying?troops, the Christian inhabitants of Egypt were excused from military service and left free in the observance of their religion and the administration of their affairs. Conversions of Copts to Islam were at first rare, and the old system of taxation was maintained for the greater part of the first Islamic century.

Egypt Under The Fatimid Caliphate

The Fatimid Caliphate?was an Ismaili Shia Islamic caliphate?that spanned a large area of North Africa, from the Red Sea?in the east to the Atlantic Ocean in the west. The dynasty ruled across the Mediterranean?coast of Africa and it was under its rule that?Egypt became the center of the caliphate. At its height the caliphate included, in addition to Egypt, varying areas of the Maghreb, Sudan, Sicily, the Levant, and Hijaz.

The Fatimid general Jawhar conquered Egypt in 969 and built a new palace city there, near Fus?at, founding a new capital in Cairo in 969. Cairo was intended as a royal enclosure for the Fatimid caliph and his army, though the actual administrative and economic capital of Egypt was in Fustat until 1169. Egypt flourished and the Fatimids developed an extensive trade network in both the Mediterranean and the Indian Ocean. Their trade and diplomatic ties extended all the way to China and its Song dynasty, which eventually determined the economic course of Egypt during the High Middle Ages. The Fatimid focus on long-distance trade was accompanied by a lack of interest in agriculture and a neglect of the Nile irrigation system.

Unlike western European governments in the era, advancement in Fatimid state offices was based more on merit than on heredity. Members of other branches of Islam, like the Sunnis, were just as likely to be appointed to government posts as Shiites. Tolerance was extended to non-Muslims such as Christians and Jews, who occupied high levels in government based on ability. Religious tolerance was set into place also to ensure the flow of money from all those who were non-Muslims in order to finance the caliphs’ large army of mamluks (an Arabic designation for slaves)brought in from Circassia by Genoese merchants. Over time, mamluks became a powerful military knightly caste, not only in Egypt. In some cases, they attained the rank of sultan, while in others they held regional power.

Intellectual life in Egypt during the Fatimid period advanced greatly, with many scholars living in or visiting Egypt and having easy access to sophisticated libraries. Fatimid caliphs gave prominent positions to scholars in their courts, encouraged scholarship, and established libraries in their palaces. Perhaps the most significant feature of Fatimid rule was the freedom of thought, provided that no one infringed on the rights of others. The Fatimids reserved separate pulpits for different Islamic sects, where the scholars expressed their various ideas. They offered patronage to scholars and invited them from all over the world, even when their beliefs conflicted with their own. From the perspective of these developments, the history of the Fatimids is the history of knowledge, literature, and philosophy.

The period is also known for producing exquisite art and architecture.

During the late 11th century and the twelfth century, the Fatimid Caliphate declined rapidly, and in 1171 Saladin invaded their territory. He founded the Ayyubid dynasty and incorporated the Fatimid state into the Abbasid Caliphate.

Do You Know about Battle of Yarmouk

After the fall of Rome, Egypt became part of the Byzantine Empire, until it was conquered by the Muslim Arabs in 641 CE.

Throughout the?Middle Ages, from its conquest by the Islamic Empire in the year 641 until?1517, Egypt was governed as part of a series of Arab Caliphates. The various Caliphs,?including the Umayyad?and?the Fatimid dynasties, kept hold of the country for almost 900 years, despite invasions by neighbouring empires and the Crusades?being waged against them. During this time,?Cairo was built and became capital city.

In 1517, the Mamluk Caliphate of Egypt was conquered?by the?Ottoman Turks, reducing it to a province forced to pay huge taxes to the Ottoman Empire. It was still semi-autonomously ruled by the Mamluks, however a?weakened economy, plagues and famines made it vulnerable, and it was invaded in?1798 by Napoleonic forces.

When the French were then defeated by the British in 1801, it left a power vacuum between the Mamluks, the Ottoman Turks, and Albanian mercenaries serving the Ottoman army, paving the way for?independent Egypt in 1805.

Modern Egypt

In 1805, the Albanian commander?Muhammed Ali seized power?and?massacred the Mamluks. With temporary approval of the Ottomans, he ruled an effectively independent Sultanate and instituted? many military, economic and cultural reforms. He is,?as such, considered the founder of Modern Egypt.

Under the successors of Muhammed Ali, Egypt began to lose its power, and fell under the influence of the British, French and Turkish. Egypt was then occupied by the British from 1882 until 1956, and was used as a base for British operations during World War II. Under the popular?King Farouk, British forces were forced to withdraw from most of the country, with the exception of the area surrounding the Suez Canal. Anti-British feelings continued, and in 1952 a military coup overthrew Farouk's monarchy, establishing the Republic of Egypt.

Since the 1952 Revolution, Egypt has remained independent, however the ensuing years have been characterised by conflict with Israel and its supporters, including?the?Suez Crisis, the Six-Day War in 1967?and the?1973 War.?

The historic?Camp David Peace Treaties?signed by Egypt - under President Sadat - and Israel in 1978 saw much-improved international relations between the Republic and the rest of the world. After Sadat was assassinated by fundamentalist army officers?in 1981, control was taken by?President Mubarak. Mubarak's 29-year-rule was based on commitment to the Camp David Accords and had great success in domestic economic reforms. However, his presidency saw a huge amount of social unrest, political corruption and police brutality, and he was overthrown during the?2011 Egyptian Revolution.?