Application of learning theories to the process of creative thinking skills in STADIO’s School of Media and Design

1.??Introduction to the learning-related issue which will be explored.

In Media and Design education, students must build knowledge using creative thinking skills while using psychomotor skills to physically create art. This article examines the learning-related issues in design pedagogy through the theoretical relationships between Arts students and specifically the animation students at STADIO, a private higher education institution, and the learning theories as encapsulated in behaviorism, constructivism, and experiential learning.

?STADIO Higher Education's arts and design faculty offer a variety of disciplines through a variety of programs, including Visual Communication, Photography, Web Design, and 3D Animation. The specific learning issue that will be examined is that which occurs in the department of 3D Animation. Learning 3D animation is similar to learning engineering, except that there is no mathematics involved. Students must become accustomed to working in three-dimensional space, where each point in the virtual three-dimensional space is calculated using the X; Y; Z cartesian coordinate system. This is typically accompanied by a high learning curve, as students must master a software design tool utilized in the business to build everything from spaceships to future automobiles. These software tools are also utilized to create virtual characters for blockbuster films. Students should also study human kinematics and observe human movement under a variety of settings to gain a thorough understanding of how humans and bipedal species move. To learn all of this, students must first observe their instructors demonstrate it (behaviourism). Then students must make sense of it all by following tutorials that walk them through the process again step by step (constructivism). Finally, they must apply this knowledge in their own assessment projects or in projects assigned to them by companies during their last year of study (experiential learning).

?In the art classroom, teachers apply a variety of different theories of learning. Behaviourism, in which students learn by observing their own and others' experiences, and constructivism, in which students develop their own knowledge through learning experiences, are two prevalent educational theories that will be looked at in this essay. The third and last theory that will be examined is the experiential learning theory, and specifically how it influences the reinforcing of student learning.

2.??Framing the learning theories most suitable for the exploration.

The different learning theories applicable to the different phases of learning for art students are firstly behaviourism, wherein the beginning, students will imitate and need encouragement to proceed until they have mastered the tools. “Watch and learn” are words that are often used by lecturers in the arts and design. This is usually the first step in acquiring new knowledge for students as observation before practice leads to better retention of the new knowledge. Larssen, Ong, and Hodges (2012) state that consecutive physical practise of two different tasks during motor adaption learning reduce the recall of the first. According to Larssen et al. (2012), there is evidence, however, that observational practice, while still beneficial in assisting acquisition, does not cause interference and hence proves to be a better practice approach. Ertmer and Newby (2013), states that according to behavioural theories, the lecturer’s work is to (1) determine which cues can elicit the desired responses; (2) set up practice situations in which prompts are paired with target stimuli that have no eliciting power at first but will be expected to elicit the responses in the "natural" (performance) setting; and (3) set up environmental conditions so that students can learn.

Constructivism is the next learning theory to be used to facilitate the sense-making process for students. Ertmer and Newby (2013), states that constructivism is a learning philosophy that links experience with the creation of meaning.

Lecturers will use the learning theories in combination with each other to benefit the learning process of their students. According to Keller (1979), theoretical frameworks for learning are a reliable source of instructional approaches, strategies, and procedures. When seeking to select an effective prescription for resolving a given educational difficulty, knowledge of a variety of such solutions is crucial. Second, learning theories lay the groundwork for rational and intelligent strategy selection. Lecturers must have a diverse set of strategies at their disposal, as well as the knowledge of when and why to use each. This understanding is contingent on the lecturer's ability to match the task's requirements with an instructional technique that benefits the learner. Third, it is vital to integrate the selected technique into the instructional context. Learning theories and research frequently provide information on the links between instructional components and instructional design, demonstrating how various strategies might best fit within a specific environment and with various learners.

3.??Review of the Literature on behaviourism, constructivism, and experiential learning in relation to creativity.

Wilson (2017) states that one unintended effect of the rising interest in constructivist learning theories has been some advocates' outright rejection of behaviourist learning theories. This phenomenon of "throwing the baby out with the bathwater" is neither new nor fruitful. Students can learn while absorbing new knowledge (indeed, just because children sit quietly and silent does not imply their thoughts aren't racing), as well as when being more active. Activity, on the other hand, does not imply that learning is taking place. All theories, including learning scientists', are based on limited data; they are conjectures and statements based on empirical study, and all scientists, including learning scientists, are continually questioning their hypotheses. Furthermore, there are occasions when numerous theories are required. Teachers can think of learning in cognitive and behavioural terms, much as scientists can think of light as both a wave and a particle. Sfard (1998) argued, in fact, that we require a variety of paradigms for learning and that discarding one in favour of another is risky. For that reason, the three most prevalent learning theories which will be looked at in this essay are behaviourism, constructivism, and experiential learning.

3.1.?????????????Behaviourism

According to Ertmer and Newby (2013), learning, according to behaviourism, is defined as changes in the form or frequency of observable performance. Behaviourism emphasizes the relevance of the outcomes of such actions, claiming that reactions that are reinforced are more likely to occur in the future. There is no attempt to determine the structure of a student's knowledge or to assess which mental processes are required. The learner is described as being reactive to environmental situations rather than taking an active role in exploring the environment.

?Behaviourism and creativity are two concepts that researchers have always struggled to bring together. Epstein and Laptosky (1999) argue that psychologists who study creativity frequently concentrate on creative behaviour rather than on creative capacity or creativity as a personality attribute. Epstein and Laptosky (1999) continue by stating that regrettably, there is no agreement among behavioural psychologists (or, indeed, among other specialists) on how to describe and quantify creative behaviour. The issue derives from the fact that the vernacular language of creativity is imprecise and uneven in its application. Typically, behaviour or the product of behaviour is only considered creative if it adds value to some group, which makes the language of creativity particularly capricious. The next step would be to incorporate problem-solving behaviour, which blends in with constructivism.

3.2.?????????????Constructivism

Winfree (2017) states that teachers that believe in constructivism think that students learn through developing their own knowledge. Educators take on the role of facilitators, providing experiences and assisting students in accomplishing activities that result in knowledge creation. Constructivist classrooms frequently incorporate inquiry-based or project-based learning, in which students are given an imprecise topic or problem to solve or are encouraged to construct their own. Students gain knowledge through resolving a problem or responding to a question. Finally, when they are given the freedom to create, they will gain understanding, knowledge, and skills through experiential learning. According to Ertmer and Newby (2013), most cognitive psychologists regard the mind as a tool for navigating the real world; constructivists argue that the mind filters information from the outside world to create its own distinct reality. While constructivists do not deny the existence of the real world, they say that our knowledge of it is founded on our own interpretations of our experiences. Humans create meaning rather than acquiring it.

?Constructivism is predicated on the notion that individuals actively construct or create their own knowledge and that reality is determined by your experiences as a learner. Essentially, learners use their prior knowledge as a foundation and then supplement it with new information. Thus, each person's unique experiences shape their learning. Tomljenovi? and Tatalovi? Vorkapi? (2020) states that in constructivist theories, the interactive teacher-student and student-student connection is emphasised as a critical component of learning. Students and teachers communicate by asking open-ended questions, encouraging students to ask questions, and establishing a dynamic environment in which students can construct and express their thoughts, attitudes, and points of view on a particular subject.

?Tatalovi? et al. (2020) state that, because constructivism-based visual education promotes the development of all students' potentials for learning and teaching, it can also be described as a holistic approach to learning and teaching, as it encompasses not only cognitive activity but also emotional, motivational, social, and psychomotor dimensions of personality. It is critical to emotionally engage students in learning and teaching because this increases the effectiveness and ease with which prior cognitive constructs can be transformed. Difficulties in implementing a constructivist viewpoint on learning and teaching may be related to a more complex process of teacher preparation, as it is simpler and easier to sustain teaching in an old, transferrable fashion without an individual approach to the students. As a result, instruction is frequently confined to the solution of basic problems rather than the participation of students in more complicated problems. Student-initiated inquiries and student-to-student exchanges are overlooked, conventional information and ways of thinking are prioritised, or the curriculum is rigidly and inflexibly interpreted (Tomljenovi? and Tatalovi? Vorkapi?, 2020).

?Tomljenovi? and Tatalovi? Vorkapi? (2020) states that interpretative activity is particularly important in visual arts education since students' perception of artworks and artistic expression is a subjective and individual interpretation of taught and experienced content. When teaching, the teacher should have no preconceived notions about the proper way to solve visual art problems, but rather cultivate an awareness of the students' diverse artistic solutions, remain receptive to new and different ideas, discuss them with the students, and make an effort to comprehend their modes of perception. Thus, the teacher gains insight into the students' method and style of cognition, their cognitive talents, attitudes, and beliefs, as well as the areas in which the students need to improve. This information serves as a foundation for the subsequent selection and preparation of educational processes and visual arts activities. Tomljenovi? and Tatalovi? Vorkapi? (2020) continues by stating that constructivism is a learning (and teaching) philosophy that occurs in education; nevertheless, there are no systematic didactic elements such as constructivist techniques or teaching methods that provide exact direction on how to incorporate constructivist principles in the teaching process. Rather than a set of didactic standards, constructivism as a theory of learning blends the varied principles of contemporary pedagogical paradigms. Some incorrect interpretations of constructivist ideas may be encountered in educational theory and practice, such as the belief that students must be always active or the denial of the need for direct instruction by the teacher.

3.3.?????????????Experiential Learning

Kolb, Boyatzis, and Mainemelis (2001) state that Experiential Learning Theory (ELT) gives a holistic view of the learning process and a multilinear view of adult development, all of which are congruent with our current understanding of how people learn, grow and develop. The term "Experiential Learning" is used to underline the fundamental significance of experience in the learning process, which distinguishes ELT from other theories of learning. Thus, the term "experiential" is used to distinguish ELT from cognitive learning theories, which tend to place a greater emphasis on cognition than on affect, and behavioural learning theories, which ignore the relevance of subjective experience in the learning process.

?According to Kolb and Kolb (2005) ELT proposes a constructivist learning theory in which social knowledge is produced and re-formed in the learner's own knowledge. This is in contrast to the "transmission" concept, which is based on pre-existing fixed ideas being communicated to the learner, and on which much present educational practise is based. Learning is defined in ELT as the process through which knowledge is generated by transforming experience The combination of grasping and changing experience yields knowledge.

4.??Contrasting the Learning theories

According to Snyman (2017), external behaviour is studied in behaviourism, which emphasizes the importance of the environment in the learning process. Experiential learning theory, on the other hand, looks at the internal changes that occur in a learner as he or she reflects on a learning event. These many perspectives can be combined to augment various functions.

Brown (2006) states that a change in a learner's behaviour indicates a learning result, according to a behavioristic perspective of learning. Learning, according to a constructivist perspective, is defined as the learner's individualized construction of meanings. Neither of these points of view can be considered solely correct or incorrect.

Snyman (2017) states that One of the most significant distinctions between behaviourist and experiential learning theories is their approach to categorizing learning. Experiential learning emphasises internalisation of and reflection on experience, whereas the behaviourist perspective emphasises external, behavioural changes. Regardless of their differences, these theories can be applied to enhance the learning process. This may be shown in how different theories can be utilized to assess the learning experience: for example, behaviourist theory can be employed in learning evaluation to use an external, objective assessment to determine whether students have accomplished learning objectives. Experiential theory, on the other hand, can be used by students as a subjective reflection on the learning process. As a result, it may be claimed that their similarities and differences complement one another, providing students with a more complete learning experience.

?5.??Identifying the reasons for framing the learning issues with the chosen theories

Students in STADIO's School of Media and Design learn first by observing the lecturer perform an activity. Students initially follow along with what the lecturer demonstrates. This increases confidence, and they simultaneously understand the technical elements. Imitating and mimicking what others do is a necessary aspect of the early stages of information acquisition. Students will model their work after that of their lecturer, and the artifacts they create will be largely formulaic. Assessment will be mostly on a low-key basis, with an emphasis on core skills and student support.

?Ertmer and Newby (2013) state that the use of instructional cues practice and reinforcement are all tactics that behaviourists try to prescribe for creating and reinforcing stimulus-response connections. Discriminations (recalling facts), generalizations (defining and showing concepts), associations (applying explanations), and chaining have all been shown to be dependable and helpful in assisting learning (automatically performing a specified procedure). However, according to Ertmer and Newby (2013), it is widely agreed that behavioural principles are insufficient to explain the acquisition of higher-level skills or those that require more processing depth (e.g., language development, problem-solving, inference generating, critical thinking).

?Constructivism and sense-making are applied during the second phase of the learning process at STADIO's School of Media and Design. Students are offered tutorials in which they will continue to learn the tools but will also discover that there are alternative methods for doing the same work and achieving the same result. Students are encouraged to experiment and develop a sense of comfort with the various toolsets. This phase will include classroom exercises. At this stage, assessments will be formative class tests with a low weighting for their final grade.

?Jonassen (1991) identified three stages of knowledge acquisition (introductory, advanced, and expert), arguing that constructive learning environments are most effective at the advanced stage, where initial misconceptions and biases acquired during the introductory stage can be discovered, negotiated, and, if necessary, modified and/or removed. Jonassen agrees that more objectivistic approaches (behavioural and/or cognitive) are better for introductory knowledge acquisition, but suggests that as learners gain more knowledge, they should transition to constructivist approaches, which will give them the conceptual power they need to deal with complex and ill-structured problems.

?Tomljenovi? et al. (2020) states that in constructivism, learning is defined as a process in which new information is connected to previously held beliefs, resulting in the comprehension and creation of new knowledge. The constructivist approach to visual arts is founded on the student's prior experience, which is supplemented with new visual knowledge and skills. In visual arts education, the acquisition of new experience and knowledge has an effect on the (re)construction of the student's prior experiences, resulting in the formation of new cognitive constructs. Along with the surroundings, the student's capacity for experiencing (i.e., emotional engagement) is critical in this process. When learning, thoughts, emotions, and willing abilities are united, new experiences and knowledge are gained, as well as individual artistic work is created.

According to Ertmer and Newby (2013), participation in authentic tasks embedded in meaningful circumstances, according to the constructivist viewpoint, can assist transfer of knowledge. Because comprehension is “indexed” by experience (just as word meanings are linked to specific instances of use), the authenticity of the experience becomes crucial to an individual's ability to apply ideas. Learning always takes place in a context, and the context establishes an inextricable link with the knowledge embedded in it, according to the constructivist viewpoint. As a result, the purpose of education is to authentically portray tasks rather than to specify the learning structure required to complete a task. There is little prospect for transfer if learning is decontextualized. Following a set of rules will not teach you how to use a set of tools. Engaging the learner in the actual use of the tools in real-world scenarios leads to appropriate and effective utilisation. As a result, the ultimate measure of learning is the effectiveness of the learner's knowledge structure in aiding thinking and performing in the system where those tools are used.

?Ertmer and Newby (2013) states that some of the specific strategies utilized by constructivists include situating tasks in real-world contexts, use of cognitive apprenticeships (modelling and coaching a student toward expert performance), presentation of multiple perspectives (collaborative learning to develop and share alternative views), social negotiation (debate, discussion, evidence giving), use of examples as real “slices of life,” reflective awareness, and providing considerable guidance on the use of constructive processes.

?The third stage of the learning process requires students in the arts to use what they have learned in an assignment in which they have complete freedom to use the tools and skills and create something unique. They will be urged to cultivate their own artistic and stylistic identities. Experiential learning will play a significant role in this third phase, as students will be placed in the industry to complete their work-integrated learning. Project-based learning will be a critical component of this phase, as each student will complete their own project for the final assessment. The final examination will be summative. Students will be assessed on the basis of their final creative product. Students who successfully complete this final stage of the learning process will be competent and prepared to go out in the world of work.

The experiential approach to learning and teaching is one of the fundamental principles of the contemporary pedagogical paradigm. Specifically, the best way to foster cognitive and metacognitive development is not one in which content is the focus of interest, but one through which the application of skills and knowledge is emphasized (Kolb et al., 2001). Tomljenovi? et al. (2020) state that to achieve this goal, a complex, challenging teaching environment should be created, which is similar to situations in everyday life. Therefore, the teacher must be familiar with contemporary, creative teaching methods, the application of which will encourage the students’ motivation to experiment and try new ways of work, as well as their openness and willingness to incorporate new ideas and approaches to solving visual arts problems. Through quality conversation or interaction with the teacher and their own cognitive and practical activity, students discover the principles, relationships, and connections between visual concepts and content, identify aesthetic and visual values in artworks and discover the specifics of art materials and techniques through learning their characteristics and experimenting with them. The teacher needs to know how to balance giving guidance for thinking and doing and letting students come to their own conclusions. The experiential approach is closely linked to problem-based learning in visual arts since experimentation and discovery are accomplished through open and problem-oriented visual tasks.

6.??Conclusion??

?According to legend, Scottish physicist James C. Maxwell once observed, "There is nothing more practical than a good theory." We are convinced that all higher education lecturers, as experienced educators, operate according to theories. Our practice is guided by our "theories" about what will work for our students. While some of these notions are explicit and learned as students in higher education, others are implicit and the result of years of experience as teachers, parents, and students in higher education. The theories discussed here, albeit briefly, have considerable potential for both explaining why teachers teach the way they do and why disrupting those patterns and compelling teachers to rethink their practices is a good thing.

? References???????

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?Epstein, R. & Laptosky, G. 1999. Behavioral approaches to creativity. In: Runco, M. A. & Pritzker, S. R. (ed) Encyclopedia of Creativity. 1st ed. New York: Academic Press. 175 - 183.

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?Sfard, A. 1998. On Two Metaphors for Learning and the Dangers of Choosing Just One. Educational Researcher, 27(2): 11. https://www.jstor.org/stable/1176193.

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?Tomljenovi?, Z. & Tatalovi? Vorkapi?, S. 2020. Constructivism in Visual Arts Classes. Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal. 10(4):13–32. https://doi.org/10.26529/cepsj.913.

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