Advancements and Features in Modern Surveying Technologies: A Comprehensive Overview

Xuan-Ce Wang

19/Nov/2023

Abstract:

This report provides a comprehensive review of recent progress and trends in modern surveying techniques and their applications in economic geology and mineral exploration. The exploration is organized into three main areas: theoretical advancements in economic geology, crucial breakthroughs in ore discovery and delineation, and advancements in surveying technology. The document illustrates how modern surveying techniques have advanced the understanding of metal ore-forming systems, improved the efficiency and accuracy of mineral exploration, and broadened the scope and diversity of surveying applications. Additionally, the report discusses the challenges and opportunities for future research and development in this dynamic field.

1.?????? Introduction

Surveying is the science and art of measuring and mapping the Earth's surface and subsurface features. It is an essential tool for various fields of human activity, such as engineering, construction, navigation, mapping, and resource management. Surveying techniques have developed over time, from traditional methods based on geometric principles and optical instruments, to modern methods based on electronic devices and digital technologies. Modern surveying techniques have enabled more accurate, efficient, and comprehensive measurements and analyses of the Earth's physical properties and processes, especially in economic geology and mineral exploration. Economic geology is the branch of geology that studies the formation, distribution, and extraction of mineral resources. Mineral exploration is searching for and discovering mineral deposits that are economically viable to exploit. Both economic geology and mineral exploration rely heavily on surveying techniques to collect and interpret geospatial data, such as topography, geology, geophysics, geochemistry, and remote sensing. Modern surveying techniques have made significant progress in these aspects, providing more reliable and detailed information for mineral exploration and resource assessment. The purpose of this report is to review the recent progress and trends in modern surveying techniques and their applications in economic geology and mineral exploration. The report is divided into three sections. The first section covers the theoretical advances in economic geology, focusing on the concept and research of metal ore-forming systems. The second section covers the key breakthroughs in ore discovery and delineation, highlighting the role and impact of modern surveying techniques in mineral exploration. The third section covers the advancements fields related to surveying technology, such as geodesy, cartography, and geographic information systems. The report concludes with a summary and discussion of the main findings and contributions, as well as the challenges and opportunities for future research and development in this field.

2.?????? Theoretical Advances in Economic Geology:

Metal Ore-Forming Systems Economic geology, as the theoretical foundation of mineral exploration technology, involves the study of aspects such as metal sources, migration, and ore-forming mechanisms. This provides scientific guidance and theoretical basis for mineral exploration. In recent years, there has been an accelerated theoretical advancement in economic geology, providing more accurate and reliable information for exploration through in-depth and comprehensive research. One of the most important and influential theoretical advances in economic geology is the concept and research of metal ore-forming systems.

Definition and Characteristics of Metal Ore-Forming Systems

The concept of metal ore-forming systems views the ore-forming process as a complex system, considering the diversity, dynamics, openness, and non-equilibrium nature of ore formation. This perspective helps reveal the essential characteristics of ore-forming systems, identify key elements and parameters, establish models and classifications of ore-forming systems, and predict the distribution and scale of ore-forming systems. This provides a new framework and methodology for mineral exploration, enhancing efficiency and accuracy. According to Lü Qingtian et al. (2019), metal ore-forming systems can be defined as "an organic whole composed of processes such as the source, migration, enrichment, and fixation of ore-forming materials, which occurs within a specific geological background and tectonic framework, exhibiting a certain spatial distribution, temporal evolution patterns, ore-forming efficiency, and scale". The main characteristics of metal ore-forming systems are as follows:

2? Diversity: Metal ore-forming systems can be divided into different types according to various criteria, such as the source of ore-forming materials, the nature of ore-forming fluids, the mode of ore deposition, the type of ore deposits, and the geological environment of ore formation. Each type of metal ore-forming system has its own distinctive features and rules, reflecting the diversity of ore formation.

2? Dynamics: Metal ore-forming systems are dynamic and changeable, driven by various internal and external factors, such as magmatic activity, tectonic movement, fluid circulation, mineralization, and weathering. These factors affect the generation, migration, enrichment, and fixation of ore-forming materials, as well as the evolution and termination of ore-forming systems.

2? Openness: Metal ore-forming systems are open and interactive, exchanging matter and energy with the surrounding environment. The openness of ore-forming systems determines the degree and direction of ore-forming material migration, as well as the scale and grade of ore deposits.

2? Non-equilibrium: Metal ore-forming systems are far from thermodynamic equilibrium, undergoing irreversible and nonlinear processes. The non-equilibrium nature of ore-forming systems results in the formation of various mineral phases and textures, as well as the occurrence of self-organization and critical phenomena.

Structure, Function, and Evolution of Metal Ore-Forming Systems

The study of metal ore-forming systems mainly includes the following aspects:

2? Structure of Ore-Forming Systems: Refers to the components and relationships within ore-forming systems, such as the source area of ore-forming materials, migration channels, enrichment zones, fixation zones, as well as the boundaries and hierarchy of ore-forming systems. The structure of ore-forming systems reflects the spatial distribution and organization of ore-forming processes and products. Figure 1 shows an example of the structure of a metal ore-forming system applied to Archaean rare metal pegmatites, adapted from the generalized model of Huston et al. (2016).

Figure 1. Schematic mineral systems model applied to Archaean rare metal pegmatites, adapted from the generalized model of (Huston et al., 2016).

2? Function of Ore-Forming Systems: Involves the mechanisms and effects of ore-forming systems, such as the physical and chemical processes of the generation, migration, enrichment, and fixation of ore-forming materials. It also considers the ore-forming efficiency and scale of the ore-forming system. The function of ore-forming systems reflects the ore-forming potential and productivity of ore-forming processes and products. Figure 2 shows an example of the function of a metal ore-forming system applied to orogenic gold deposits, adapted from Groves et al. (2020).

Figure 2. Schematic mineral systems model applied to Archaean rare metal pegmatites, adapted from the generalized model of Huston et al. (2016).

2? Evolution of Ore-Forming Systems:

Evolution of Ore-Forming Systems This aspect encompasses the history and stages of the formation and development of ore-forming systems. It includes the triggering factors, evolutionary paths, evolution rates, termination conditions, as well as the spatial and temporal distribution and changes of ore-forming systems. The evolution of ore-forming systems reflects the temporal variation and transformation of ore-forming processes and products. Figure 3 shows an example of the evolution of a metal ore-forming system applied to porphyry copper deposits, adapted from Richards (2009).

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Figure 3. Schematic diagram of the evolution of a porphyry copper system, showing the temporal and spatial relationships between magmatism, hydrothermal alteration, and mineralization. Adapted from Richards (2009).

Research Methods

The study of metal ore-forming systems involves observing, testing, experimenting, and calculating various aspects of ore-forming systems, such as their structure, function, evolution, and control. The research methods can be divided into three categories: analysis, integration, and prediction.

2? Analysis: This refers to revealing the essential characteristics and inherent laws of ore-forming systems and establishing models and classifications. This is done by observing, testing, experimenting, and calculating various aspects of ore-forming processes and products, such as geology, geochemistry, geophysics, mineralogy, petrology, isotopy, fluid inclusion, and numerical simulation.

2? Integration: This refers to exploring the commonalities and specificities of different ore-forming systems and formulating concepts and theories related to ore-forming systems. This is done by comparing, linking, integrating, and summarizing different ore-forming systems based on various criteria, such as the source of ore-forming materials, the nature of ore-forming fluids, the mode of ore deposition, the type of ore deposits, and the geological environment of ore formation.

2? Prediction: This refers to predicting the distribution and scale of ore-forming systems and guiding mineral exploration and development. This is done by simulating, deducing, evaluating, and optimizing ore-forming systems based on various factors, such as the geological background, tectonic framework, fluid activity, lithospheric structure, and geodynamic processes.

Figure 4. Orogenic Gold Mineral Systems (Introduction to the Orogenic Gold Mineral Systems – Mineral Systems of Finland (gtk.fi)).

Research Goals

The main goals of the research on metal ore-forming systems are as follows:

2? To improve the understanding of the formation, distribution, and extraction of mineral resources, providing scientific guidance and theoretical basis for mineral exploration.

2? To identify the key elements and parameters of ore-forming systems, such as the source, migration, enrichment, and fixation of ore-forming materials, as well as the boundaries and hierarchy of ore-forming systems.

2? To establish models and classifications of ore-forming systems, such as the metallogenic series, the metallogenic epoch, the metallogenic province, and the metallogenic belt, reflecting the spatial and temporal patterns and rules of ore formation.

2? To predict the distribution and scale of ore-forming systems, such as the ore-forming potential, the ore-forming productivity, and the ore-forming location, providing valuable information and guidance for mineral exploration and resource assessment.

Research Significance The study of metal ore-forming systems holds significant theoretical significance and practical value. Theoretically, it contributes to a deeper understanding of ore-forming processes, enriching and developing ore-forming theories, and advancing the field of geology. Practically, it helps improve the efficiency and accuracy of mineral exploration, increase the discovery and utilization of mineral resources, and promote the development of the mining industry.

3.?????? Technological Breakthroughs in Mineral Exploration and Delineation:

The discovery and delineation of ore deposits are essential for mineral exploration technology, and this field has witnessed significant breakthroughs. Some of the innovative technologies that have improved the effectiveness, accuracy, and scope of mineral exploration are:

2? Airborne Gravity: This technology uses aircraft or drones with gravity meters to measure the Earth's gravity field. It can detect and locate large or giant mineral deposits hidden under deep layers, such as iron, copper, and nickel. It is efficient, precise, and adaptable to various terrains.

2? Hyperspectral Remote Sensing: This technology uses satellites or aircraft with hyperspectral sensors to measure the Earth's spectral characteristics. It can identify rocks, minerals, alterations, vegetation, and other indicators of mineralization, especially for surface or near-surface metal deposits like gold, silver, lead-zinc, etc. It is efficient, precise, and covers various spectral bands and wavelengths.

2? Deep Electromagnetic Measurement: This technology uses ground or airborne devices to emit and measure electromagnetic waves. It can detect and locate highly conductive mineral deposits hidden under deep layers, such as gold, copper, uranium, etc. It is efficient, precise, and adaptable to various frequencies and wavelengths.

2? 3D Modeling and Inversion: This technology uses computer software to create 3D models of underground structures, ore bodies, geological features, etc., based on various data sources. It provides a 3D visualization and quantitative assessment of underground resources, especially for concealed or complex deposits like gold, copper, uranium, etc. It is efficient, precise, and adaptable to various types and scales of data and models.

2? Portable Analyzers: These are small, smart, wireless instruments for rapid on-site or near-site analysis of rocks, minerals, elements, etc. They offer real-time detection and assessment of underground resources, especially for difficult-to-sample or transport deposits like gold, silver, lead-zinc, etc. They are efficient, precise, and adaptable to various environments and conditions.

2? Underwater Mineral Exploration: This technology employs underwater robots, sonar, magnetometers, gravity meters, resistivity meters, etc., to measure the seabed's features. It can discover and locate underwater mineral resources, especially those rich in rare earths, nickel, cobalt, copper, etc., such as seafloor hydrothermal sulfides, cobalt-rich crusts, underwater sediments, etc. It is efficient, precise, and covers various depths and types of seafloor areas.

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4.?????? Data integration and artificial intelligence-driven mineral exploration methods

In addition to the advances in economic geology theory and the technological breakthroughs in mineral discovery and delineation, data integration and artificial intelligence-driven mineral exploration methods are also important directions for the development of mineral exploration technology in recent years. Data integration refers to the effective integration and analysis of multi-source, multi-type, and multi-scale geological data, to improve the quality and value of data, and to provide more comprehensive and accurate information for mineral exploration. Artificial intelligence refers to the technology that uses computers to simulate and implement human intelligence, including machine learning, deep learning, neural networks, etc., to improve the processing and interpretation capabilities of data, and to provide more intelligent and efficient methods for mineral exploration. Data integration and artificial intelligence-driven mineral exploration methods mainly include the following aspects:

Data preprocessing: refers to the operations such as cleaning, transforming, normalizing, interpolating, and fusing the original geological data, to eliminate the problems of noise, missing, inconsistency, duplication, etc. in the data, and to improve the quality and availability of the data.1 Data visualization: refers to the use of graphics, images, animations, etc., to present the information of the structure, attributes, relationships, distribution, etc. of the geological data to the user in an intuitive and beautiful form, to enhance the expression and understanding abilities of the data.2 Data mining: refers to the use of statistics, machine learning, deep learning, and other technologies, to discover valuable patterns, rules, knowledge, and other information from the geological data, to support the analysis and decision-making of the data.3 Data modeling: refers to the use of mathematical, physical, chemical, and other principles, to abstract the geological data into mathematical models, to simulate and predict the geological processes and phenomena, to verify and optimize the interpretation and application of the data.4 Data integration and artificial intelligence-driven mineral exploration methods have important theoretical significance and practical value. From the theoretical significance point of view, it helps to expand and deepen the understanding of geological data, enrich and develop the theory of geological data, and promote the scientific and intelligent development of geological data. From the practical value point of view, it helps to improve the utilization and benefit of geological data, increase the added value and competitiveness of geological data, and promote the innovation and development of geological data.

In addition to these specific domains, several general fields have also made significant progress in supporting mineral exploration technology. These include computer technology, electronics, global navigation satellite systems, geographic information systems, etc.

Conclusion:

The rapid evolution of surveying technology in economic geology and mineral exploration results from a dynamic interplay between theoretical advances, technological breakthroughs, and progress in associated fields. The theoretical advancements in economic geology provide a robust foundation for understanding ore-forming systems and processes. Technological breakthroughs in ore discovery and delineation offer powerful tools and methods for efficient and accurate exploration. The integration of data and artificial intelligence-driven methods further enhances the capabilities of modern surveying technology. This integrated approach contributes to the sustainable development of mineral resources by ensuring effective exploration and responsible resource management. The report concludes with a summary of key findings and a discussion of challenges and opportunities for future research and development in this field.

References

Groves, D., Santosh, M. and Zhang, L., 2020. A scale-integrated exploration model for orogenic gold deposits based on a mineral system approach. Geoscience Frontiers, 11.

Hedenquist, J.W. and Lowenstern, J.B., 1994. The role of magmas in the formation of hydrothermal ore deposits. Nature, 370(6490): 519-527.

Huston, D.L., Mernagh, T.P., Hagemann, S.G., Doublier, M.P., Fiorentini, M., Champion, D.C., Lynton Jaques, A., Czarnota, K., Cayley, R., Skirrow, R. and Bastrakov, E., 2016. Tectono-metallogenic systems — The place of mineral systems within tectonic evolution, with an emphasis on Australian examples. Ore Geology Reviews, 76: 168-210.

Lü Qingtian, Guixiang, M., Jiayong, Y., Kun, Z., Jinhua, Z. and Xuejing, G., 2019. Multi-scale exploration of mineral system: Concept and progress-A case study in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River Metallogenic Belt. Geology in China, 46(4): 673-689 (in Chinese with English abstract).

Richards, J.P., 2009. Postsubduction porphyry Cu-Au and epithermal Au deposits: Products of remelting of subduction-modified lithosphere. Geology, 37(3): 247-250.

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