By Michael Otieno Okello

Introduction

Urbanization is the growth in size and number of cities; a process by which the proportion of the population increases in urban areas as a result of natural population increase, ‘creation of new cities’, extension of city boundaries and majorly due rural-urban migration. As urbanization continues, it poses challenges to citizens living within the urban ecosystems as well as the hinterlands. The effects of urbanization process impact on urban development, including the urban-rural linkage and the capacity of the government of the growing towns to sustain the needs of burgeoning population, both globally and regionally.

In theory there are good reasons for thinking that urbanization should contribute to economic development (Duranton and Puga 2004; World Bank 2009; Glaeser 2011). However, urbanization has caused global concerns in several countries across the rapidly urbanizing world which continues to experience more challenges than gains. [i]The gains and challenges of urbanization affect formal and informal settlements. [ii]It is estimated that, in the absence of serious remedial action, about half of the urban population increase between 2001 and 2030, i.e. 1 billion people, will take place in urban slums.

Urbanization trends in developed, transitional and developing economics are experienced differently. Within the developing regions of Sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, the Middle-east and North Africa, as well as Latin America and the Caribbean as a whole, the major urban challenges are, and will continue to be: Urban poverty and increasing inequality (especially in Latin America); how to ensue delivery of urban land in order to meet increasing demand for housing (especially in Africa and Asia), increasing demand of public services and infrastructure; the need to mitigate the impacts of and adapt to climate change; addressing urban informality, in terms of land delivery, housing and livelihoods; rapid and chaotic peri-urbanization and the emerging phenomenon of extended urban corridors; the needs of the youth, who constitute the majority of the urban population; and the shortage of skills in the human settlements or built environment sector.[iii]

The transition economies face other different challenges in urban development including: how to address the problems resulting from slow (or even negative) population growth and ageing, including shrinking cities and deteriorating buildings and infrastructure; how to address problems of urban sprawl and preservation of inner-city heritage buildings according to Hirt, S and K. Stanilov (2008).[iv]

In the foreseeable future, the major urban challenges in developed countries will include: increasing socio-spatial inequalities and urban fragmentation resulting from globalization and competitive city investment, the large ecological footprints of cities caused by car-dependence, huge waste production and urban sprawl; as well as problems associated with slow population growth, ageing and shrinking of cities (UN-Habitat, 2003).[v]

Urban challenges in Kenya

Some urban gains and challenges are common in all nations while some are particular to certain economies across the world. Kenya is a developing nation with aspiration to being middle income economy by year 2030. Urbanization challenges in Kenya will remain a contemporary issue that may require input of all the stake holders to try to bring effective policy and implementation objectives since urbanization seems irreversible and is expected to be at a higher level in future. According to Attahi, K (2008), as cities continue to increase in number and size, they will deal or leave with the following urban challenges (which are currently experienced in Kenya):- urban informality (in the acquisition and ownership of land and housing) and vulnerable livelihoods, rapid and chaotic peri-urbanization (and currently gentrification and the emerging phenomenon of extended urban by-passes/corridors); unemployment of the youth, urban social violence including abuse against women and children; addressing the needs of the aged and terminally ill urban population; urban sprawl and its effects on other non-urban land uses (agriculture, conservation sites), how to preserve inner-city heritage sites and monuments alongside urban (re)development given the growing demand for real estate investments in greenfield and brownfield sites.

Kenya is still seeking solutions to problems related to county urban governments and bad governance, real estate financing hurdles, property development problems (land and property transaction irregularities, double titling and multiple sales and demolitions of developments on reserves and illegally acquired lands); increasing socio-spatial inequalities, high wage bills and unfavorable labor markets that has left many urban residents unemployed and impoverished. Environmental challenges are a common issue to urban management. These include the effect ecological footprints of cities caused by public and private car-dependence, huge waste production and urban sprawl and wide fossil energy consumption. How to mitigate the effects of and adapt to climate change and other urban challenges call for a paradigm shift towards sustainable urban development through good governance.

Road to sustainable urbanization

There is evidence that municipalities are more responsive to changing realities on the ground than national authorities, particularly for managing the built environment S. and Parnell, S. (2014). Decentralization and devolution of core governance in municipalities (or the counties in Kenya case) was thought as a hallmark of urban governance. When accompanied with adequate and transparent resource transfers and country resource generation, urban governance is believed to promote more capable, accountable effective and responsive public sectors that serve the interests of the poor (the majority) as witnessed in Bagota, Medellin and Rio de Janeiro. However, urban governance has yielded uncertain outcomes featuring weak structure and capacities in sub Saharan Africa Muggah (2012) quoted in Vetters (2007). In Kenya, lack of urban integrated master plans, duplication and overlapping of roles by institutions, corruption, bad governance, inadequate financing and resource allocation, as well as untapped economic resources remains a big challenge in meeting urban needs for services and infrastructure. Some steps to effective urban management should embrace the following:

Good governance.Proponents of urban governance draw attention to the often rent seeking, patronage-led and elitist relations that systematically undermine modes and modalities of equitable governance and solution to urban poverty. This revelation calls for urban governance that is very specific in meeting tackling the challenges of specific towns. The Global Campaign on Urban Governance proposes that good urban governance is characterized by a series of principles, which are interdependent and mutually reinforcing. Capacity building; requisite personnel, skills and capital are key to address rapid urbanization. Clear role definition will allow communication and fewer transaction hence reducing costs. The capabilities and participation of non-state actors can also be reinforced by promoting interactions between the local societies with public institutions in action plans.

Encouraging partnerships-Fostering public-public partnerships as well as formulating enforceable public-private partnerships can enable competitive service and infrastructure delivery. This has idea has been appreciated in Kenya; e-revenue collection partnership of Kenyan county governments with banks has ensured reduction in cost of revenue management, maximized revenue collection and curbing corruption hence effective and adequate allocation of resource to various sectors . Other areas that may require partnerships include; firefighting, city cleaning, environment management, housing delivery, audits, and security among other services.

Stakeholder participation, education and awareness creation is very important for the survival of interventions, and that the all stakeholders buy in the action plans, new fees, taxation and any other fiscal plans. The clear objectives of action plans should be explained to stakeholders as well as their concomitant return, says Muggah and Sisk (2012). The county governments apart when making strides towards socio-economic and sustainable development should also encourage stake holder participation and inclusion for considerable acceptance and social capital building. Integrated physical planning should include action plans for unplanned settlement towards solving urban informality of the majority of population living in slums.

Fostering urban security

Most of the urban populations live in informal settlements characterized by homelessness and poor housing results due to congestion and overcrowding. City action plans are yet to incorporate informal settlements in their plans. Established organizations such as UN-Habitat (2007: 70) have observed how “the prevalence of overcrowding in inadequate dwellings has been linked to increases in negative social behaviors, such as domestic violence and child abuse, and to negative outcomes of education and child development (Muggah 2012). Urban violence reduction intervention apart from mostly known pacification and community policing, should also involve enhancing protection and reducing risks facing youths, promotion of social capital and urban cohesion (through exchange in fairs, exhibition, talents promotion, festivals) and working with the private sector to harness unrealistic potential of informal settlements which offer critical resources that can be built on, says Buckley (20060; Schlomo, (1968). Corporate social responsibility and unifying activities can foster healthy multi- ethnic interactions.

Environmental stewardship-Shifts towards renewable energy options, in the wake of pursuit of sustainable urban development, and reducing ecological footprints through ecosystem based approaches would yield fruits in conservation of pristine ecosystems from which urban ecosystems derive benefits such as water, carbon sequestration amongst other benefits. Addressing challenges of sprawl and suburbanization will help lessen the burden of city management in terms of services and infrastructure provision. intelligent and green building technologies, enforcement of building regulations and rule of law, and research on solution to effects of motorized private and public transport is a way to reducing carbon emission in urban ecosystems. Sustainable water consumption in hot spots as well as effective garbage, waste and soil water disposal will reduce the already existing water demand deficit and good sanitation.

Technology and innovations towards green economy, green building and affordability to ensure sustainable urban development should be encouraged and supported through domestic and donor funding, legal frameworks to institutionalize training and accreditation as well as exchange of innovative ideas and partnership programmers.

While urbanization comes with many challenges, it plays a significant role in shaping lives and cultures as well as creating many opportunities for agglomeration, transfer of technologies, innovations, and special services delivery especially when coupled with good governance principles and sustainability vision. Urban areas are a hub of economic empowerment and championing of rights of many groups including women. Embracing good governance and integrated urban plans can ensure equity, effectiveness, participation, and accountability. There is also a call to all stakeholders to foster sustainable energy, water and mineral consumption, allocation and exploitation with ecosystem based considerations. Everyone should take the initiative to make urban built environment a sustainable green economy, since it offers a home and destination of the future populations.

[i] UN-Habitat Donors meeting Seville, 15-16 October 2008

[ii] UN-HABITAT (2003), The Challenges of slums: Global Report on Human Settlement 2003, Earthscan, London.

[iii] Attahi, K. (2008), ‘revisiting urban planning in sub-Saharan francophone Africa’ drafts regional study prepared for the global report on human settlements 2009; Okpala D.O(2008), ‘Regional overview of The Status of Urban Planning and Planning Practice in Anglophone (Sub-Saharan) African Countries; Draft Regional Study prepared for The Global Report on Human Settlements 2009.

[iv] Hirt, S.and K. Stanilov (2008) ‘revisiting urban planning in the transitional countries’, regional study prepared for the global report on human settlements 2009.

[v] Girau, P. (2008)’Urban planning trends in the north’, draft regional study prepared for the global report on human settlements 2009.

S. and Parnell, S. (2014): Handbook on Cities in the G (UN-Habitat, 2003)Global South, London: Routledge}