#005 Trees , Forests and their Importance.
Forests and their importance to support life on earth/ Forest dependent ecosystems
Facts About Forests
1) Forests are home to over 80 percent of land animals and plants and cover 31 percent of the world’s total land area. About 1.6 billion people around the world depend on forests for their livelihoods and daily subsistence needs.
2) A tree can sequester up to 150 kilograms of carbon dioxide per year. The world’s forests store an estimated 296 gigatons of carbon in both above- and below-ground biomass. Just imagine: Europe’s 400 billion trees currently absorb almost 9 percent of the continent’s greenhouse gas emissions!
3) Trees are important for creating sustainable cities: in urban areas, they can cool the air by up to 8 degrees, reducing air conditioning needs by 30 percent. Urban trees are also excellent air filters, removing harmful pollutants and fine particulates.
4) Wood fuel provides 40 percent of today's global renewable energy supply – as much as solar, hydroelectric and wind power combined. Greater investment in technological innovation and in sustainably managed forests is key to increasing forests' role as a renewable energy.
5) Forest products contribute to reducing and replacing polluting and carbon intensive materials. Certified wood-based fibers (such as Lyocell) used in textile production are very resource efficient. In comparison, cotton requires on average 130 times more water and polyester emits on average 170 times more greenhouse gasses.
6) Using wood for construction saves about 40 percent of carbon emissions in comparison to concrete, and about 30 percent in comparison to steel. Overall, global carbon dioxide emissions could be reduced by up to 31 percent if builders used wood instead of steel and concrete.
7) More than 25 percent of the medicines we use originate in rainforest plants. Yet only 1 percent of rainforest plants have been studied for medicinal properties.
8) More than one third of our biggest cities, including New York, Bogota, Tokyo and Barcelona, get a significant proportion of their high-quality drinking water from protected forests.
9) The tallest tree in the world is called Hyperion. It’s a coast redwood from California that is an incredible 115.61 meters tall. The largest tree in the world by volume is a giant sequoia called General Sherman which has a trunk 10 meters round and contains an estimated 1486 cubic meters of wood.
10) A large oak tree can transpire 151,000 liters of water in a year. On average, 40 percent of rainfall over land originates from evapotranspiration from plants. In some areas the amount is even higher. For example, more than 70 percent of rainfall in the Rio de la Plata river basin originates from evapotranspiration from the Amazon forest.
International Day of Forests UNECE
Resources
Forests Importance and its Needs
Forests – a lifeline for people and planet (UN)
Needs of Forest- Forests provide essential resources
Forests and all terrestrial ecosystems- World Bank
Forests and Terrestrial Ecosystems?
Forest biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and the provision of ecosystem services
Ecosystem Services- Issues and expected changes
Forest Ecosystem restoration- Damage done to ecosystem and restoration
Vulnerability of tropical forest ecosystems and forest dependent communities to droughts- Net Primary Productivity (NPP)
European forest ecosystems- European Environment Agency (EEA)
Forests and Water Valuation and payments for forest ecosystem services (UNECE)
News and Reports
Mongabay’s Conservation Potential series investigates: Where do we need to protect biodiversity? (Mongabay)
Biodiversity Needs To Be a Climate Priority (Time)
Logged tropical forests have amplified and diverse ecosystem energetics (Report)
Organizations/ Bodies
Forest Ecosystem Services- UN
Responsible forestry- WWF
Climate Smart Agriculture Sourcebook Food and Agriculture organisation of the United Nation?
Forests and Terrestrial Ecosystems The World Bank
How Do We Love Trees? Tree Foundation
UN report: As the world’s forests continue to shrink, urgent action is needed to safeguard their biodiversity UN Environment Program
International Tropical Tribal Information ITTO
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation?
At WRI, we believe there’s a better way. A better future is possible
EFI European Forest Institute - JRC Report 2021-2022
US Forest Service Significant Documents
World Economic Forum New EU deforestation law
UNFCCC REDD+ - UN Climate Change
Forest and Education – key messages UNECE Forest Education Message
Forest Facts overview Forest Facts
Why are Forests Important and Why Do We Need Them?
?Forests are our land’s trees and plants that cover a third of the earth’s surface symbolized by the color green in the common definition of environmentalism. There are many reasons why forests are an important feature for the environment and in our daily lives. They are fundamental life forms and provide for the continuity of the world’s biodiversity which is necessary for economic development, diversity of life forms, human livelihood, and environmental adaptive responses.
Forests are mainly important because they stabilize climate, regulate the water cycle, and provides habitat to thousands of life forms. Below are the leading reasons signifying the importance of forest. forest-light-mood-light-beam.jpg?
Forests – a lifeline for people and planet
We all rely on forests. They generate the oxygen we breathe, provide water to quench our thirst and livelihoods to some 1.6 billion people worldwide. They play a critical role for a healthy climate, and ultimately, for our survival. Yet, they continue to be under threat. Ahead of this year’s International Day of Forests, we spoke with Mita Sen in the UN Forum on Forests in UN DESA, about the state of our world’s forests and what must be done to protect them.
Why are forests so important for our life here on Earth?
“It is difficult to picture life on Earth without forests and trees. Forests sustain our lives in so many ways, from the air we breathe and the water we drink to the food we eat and the wood and paper products that we use every day.
Over 1.6 billion people depend on forests for timber, food, fuel, jobs, and shelter, but all of us depend on forests in one way or the other. Forests provide critical ecosystem services that affect our climate, rainfall patterns, and watersheds, at the same time they are also home to 80 percent of all land-based biodiversity. According to some estimates, the economic value of ecosystem services provided by the world’s forests could be worth as much as US$16.2 trillion annually.”
What is the state of the world’s forests?
“The good news is that over the past 25 years, the annual rate of net global deforestation has slowed by more than 50 percent. This is due to governments and stakeholders working to sustainably manage forests, along with investing in restoration and afforestation of degraded forests and land.
The bad news is that despite these efforts, forests continue to be under threat. Annually, over 7 million hectares of natural forests are still lost, mostly through conversion to other land uses – such as large-scale commercial agriculture and other economic activities. Forests are being negatively impacted by land degradation, ecosystem fragmentation, invasive pests, diseases, and frequent forest fires – many of which are exacerbated by the effects of climate change.”
What action is needed to further protect them, and how can people help the world’s forests?
For more information: International Day of Forests
From subalpine conifer forests to lush tropical rainforests, forests cover nearly one-third of the earth’s land surface.? But as people burn and chop down massive amounts of trees, this forest coverage is rapidly dwindling. In 2020, a football field-sized area of tropical forest was lost every four seconds. As our forests disappear, it has a devastating ripple effect on people, wildlife, and the planet.
There are so many reasons why we should conserve our forests and keep them standing. Read on to discover 14 of the incredible benefits that forests provide and consider protecting them by offsetting your carbon footprint!
Needs of Forest
?Forests provide essential resources
Forests provide many of the resources that we use in our daily lives. Just look around your house – how many things are made from wood or other forest products? Many common household items such as furniture and books are derived from forest resources. What about your floors, doors, or siding? Timber is the primary material used to construct homes in many parts of the world. Not to mention, many families rely on wood fuel to heat their homes.?
Are a haven of biodiversity
Forests are so much more than a bunch of trees! From orangutans swinging in the treetops to ants marching along the forest floor, these complex ecosystems are full of life. In fact, it is estimated that forests are home to 80% of the world’s land-based plant and animal species. The lives of these organisms are all interconnected. Even the dead leaves that litter the forest floor have an important ecological role of replenishing the soil nutrients that plants need to grow. Below the ground, trees use a network of fungi to share nutrients with each other. Because life in the forest is so interdependent, it throws off the balance of the entire ecosystem when one part is lost.
Support jobs
Forests also provide employment and generate income for millions of people worldwide. Many types of jobs depend on forests and their resources, from loggers and construction workers to trekking guides and forest rangers.
Sustain rural livelihoods
While we all depend on forests in one way or another, it is estimated that about 350 million people around the world live within or near to forests and are highly dependent on them for their livelihoods. This includes millions of indigenous people who are almost entirely dependent on forests for their subsistence and survival.
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Provide food security and nutrition
For many rural communities, forests are their neighborhood “grocery stores.” Forests are an excellent place to forage for wild foods such as berries, mushrooms, leaves, tubers, and nuts; and the wild animals that live in forests are an important source of protein. Forests also play an essential role in food preparation since about one-third of the world’s population uses wood fuel for cooking.
Fight climate change
Forests are natural carbon sinks. How we interact with them can either slow or exacerbate the climate crisis. As trees and other plants grow, they absorb carbon dioxide and store it in their trunks, roots, branches, and soils. Each year, the world’s forests absorb 16 billion metric tons of CO2 – that’s more than 40% of global fossil fuel emissions. However, if forests are destroyed then they can actually worsen climate change by releasing more carbon than they absorb
Clean the air
Every year, more than four million people die as a result of outdoor air pollution. Forests help to keep people healthy by purifying the air that we breathe. In addition to absorbing carbon dioxide, trees remove other harmful pollutants from the air and pump out oxygen.
Protect us from natural disasters
Forests also keep us safe by defending against natural hazards. Trees and other plants help prevent landslides by holding the soil in place and lessening the force of rain on the ground. Similarly, mangrove forests stabilize shorelines and reduce the power of waves. As such, they act as a natural buffer, protecting coastal communities from the damaging effects of storms and tsunamis.
i . Are playgrounds for recreation
Beyond the necessities, forests are also a source of fun, excitement, and inspiration. Each year, about 8 billion visitors explore the world’s national parks and other protected areas, many of which are forested. From hiking to ziplining to mountain biking, forests are a destination for epic adventures.
J . Produce life-saving medicines
Forests are often referred to as “nature’s medicine cabinet.” And for good reason. Forests are the source of many ingredients that are used to create drugs to treat malaria, cancer, and other diseases. In fact, more than a quarter of modern medicines are derived from tropical forest plants. On the flip-side, when humans destroy forest habitats it can lead to the spread of zoonotic diseases.
K. Inspire and heal us
Forests also promote personal well-being and heal the soul. There’s something special about staying in an ecolodge overlooking a lush jungle, walking through a grove of golden aspens, or spotting a sloth up high in the canopy. Spending time in forests helps us to unwind, inspires creativity, and leads people to develop a greater appreciation for the environment.
L.? Help generate rainfall
Forests influence the water cycle through a process called transpiration. Trees absorb water through their roots which is later released as water vapor from their leaves. This water vapor accumulates into clouds until it falls down again as rain, snow, or hail. Though evaporation from water bodies accounts for the vast majority of moisture in the atmosphere, transpiration from plants is still significant. For example, a large oak tree can give off 40,000 gallons (151,000 liters) per year.
M . Purify water
Forests play an important role in keeping our rivers, streams, lakes, and oceans healthy. Trees and other vegetation improve water quality by reducing soil erosion, decreasing stormwater runoff, and filtering out sediments and chemical pollutants.
N . Hold spiritual and cultural value
Forests and their resources hold significance in many cultures and religions. While some patches of forest are considered to be sacred places, others may serve as venues for cultural events or ceremonies. Specific trees, plants, and animals bear symbolic meaning in certain cultures and are often represented in art, folklore, and traditional practices.
Forests and all terrestrial ecosystems
Forests and all terrestrial ecosystems are critical not only to flora and fauna but also to communities that depend on them, contributing to poverty reduction, economic growth and employment. Healthy forests and terrestrial ecosystems provide critical ecosystem services important to people and economies such as habitat for biodiversity, provision of drinking water, water and climate cycle regulation, erosion prevention, crop pollination, soil fertility, and flood control.
However, deforestation,? and forest and land degradation threaten these ecosystem services and the well-being of people that depend on them. Land degradation impacts an estimated 3.2 billion people worldwide, and some 40 percent of the world’s poorest live on land that is classified as degraded. Land degradation has reduced the productivity of 23 percent of the global land surface (IPBES 2019).
More than 70 percent of emerging infectious diseases are from zoonotic origin. Clearing of forests for agriculture, extractive industries, urbanization and other land uses leads to the loss or degradation of habitat and brings humans and wildlife into closer contact, increasing the risk of spillover of infectious diseases such as SARS, Ebola and HIV. Better integrated or “one health” approaches to landscape management that consider human, animal and ecosystem health are needed.
Forests and all terrestrial ecosystems can also contribute to building back better by supporting livelihoods for communities and providing much-needed employment opportunities for vulnerable populations. Some of the poorest and most vulnerable segments of the population live in fragile natural resource environments. In the short term, these communities can receive income support through land rehabilitation and forest work schemes. Landscapes, programs can be scaled up further to create jobs, support livelihoods and market access, food security and long-term resilience through enhanced productivity of local natural resources assets. Such projects support participatory community resource management mechanisms and direct investments in economic activities.
Deforestation and forest degradation contribute about 12% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions.
The 2019 IPCC special report on Climate Change and Land affirmed that planting forests and protecting existing forests is key to all pathways for limiting global warming to 1.5oC or well below 2oC increase. Investment in planting trees and forest conservation is urgently needed as many of the world’s remaining forests are under increasing threat due to agriculture expansion, timber extraction, fuelwood collection and other activities. The IPBES estimates that investment in nature-based solutions could contributes about 37 percent of the climate change mitigation needed by 2030 to keep global temperatures below a 2oC increase while generating jobs and biodiversity co-benefits.
Between fiscal years 2016 – 2021, nearly 6 million people benefited from projects, including 1.2 million women and 105,000 indigenous peoples, with 835,000 people benefiting financially. Some 992,000 land users adopted sustainable landscape management (SLM) practices, bringing 269 million hectares under such practices. An estimated 76 million hectares gained enhanced biodiversity protection, and 8.9 million hectares outside of protected areas became managed as biodiversity-friendly. Some 638,00 hectares were restored or afforested and 26 million tons of carbon dioxide emissions were reduced or avoided. An estimated 961,000 people gained forest use or ownership rights.
Report World Bank Org
Forest biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and the provision of ecosystem services
Forests and woodlands harbour immense terrestrial and aquatic biodiversity and, especially in moist tropical regions, represent the most species-rich habitat type worldwide (Mace et al. 2005; Lindenmayer 2009; Gibson et al. 2011). Pressures from human activities leading to forest loss, fragmentation and degradation (FAO 2015) have already caused much biodiversity decline and homogenization (Lindenmayer and Franklin 2002; Newbold et al. 2015; van der Plas et al. 2016b). These declines are expected to continue (e.g., Newbold et al. 2015), especially in the rich forests of Central and South America, South and Southeast Asia and Africa, although the rate of forest loss has been slowing in recent years (Keenan et al. 2015). Conversely, the area of planted forests (including plantation forests) is increasing and is currently ca. 7% of total forest cover (Payn et al. 2015).
Collectively, these trends in forest cover and condition are a major concern, not only because of the implications for the conservation of biodiversity, but also because forests provide a wide range of critically important ecosystem services such as climate regulation, biomass production, water supply and purification, pollination, and the provision of habitats for forest species (Bauhus et al. 2010; Thompson et al. 2011; Brockerhoff et al. 2013; Decocq et al. 2016; Liang et al. 2016; Mori et al. 2017). There is also increasing evidence that the provision of ecosystem services is related to aspects of biodiversity; there is a positive relationship between biodiversity and most ecosystem services (e.g., Hooper et al. 2005; Balvanera et al. 2006; Isbell et al. 2011; Gamfeldt et al. 2013).
A wide range of mechanisms have been proposed to explain the relationships between biodiversity and ecosystem services. Niche complementarity in time and space, and complementarity of functional effect traits and functional response traits are all likely to be involved (Isbell et al. 2011). Facilitation between plant species growing together has often been found to lead to enhanced growth of certain tree mixtures (Thompson et al. 2014). For example, at nitrogen-limited sites, tree species that are nitrogen-fixers may enhance the growth of other tree species in mixed stands (e.g., Binkley 2003; Forrester and Bauhus 2016). Resistance to disturbance is facilitated by forest and tree diversity, leading to a reduction or dilution of resources (e.g., for herbivores), diversion or disruption, and multi-trophic interactions (e.g., enhanced abundance and action of natural enemies) (Jactel et al. 2017). Finally, the so-called ‘sampling effect’ can enhance the provision of ecosystem services, simply because the presence of more species increases the likelihood that an ecosystem will contain a species that grows faster, is more resistant to a particular disturbance, or has some other advantageous trait that leads to enhanced ecosystem functioning or provision of services, compared to communities with fewer species (Wardle 2001; Lefcheck et al. 2015).
Given the role of biodiversity in the provision of ecosystem services, the widespread degradation of forests is likely to have far-reaching effects, such as reduced resistance (or increased susceptibility) to natural or anthropogenic disturbance. As such disturbances appear to be increasing in frequency and intensity (e.g., Pachauri et al. 2014; Brockerhoff and Liebhold 2017; Freer-Smith and Webber 2017) declines in biodiversity are likely to reduce forests’ resistance to climate extremes (e.g., Isbell et al. 2015) and to pests, pathogens, invasive species, and other disturbance factors (e.g., Jactel et al. 2017), and to reduce the provision of ecosystem services in general (e.g., Vilà and Hulme 2016).
Ecosystem processes, functions, services are distinct concepts
It is widely recognized that biodiversity is a major driving force in ecosystem function (Hooper et al. 2005; Schulze and Mooney 2012). Hundreds of studies have addressed the effects of tree species diversity on many forest ecosystem functions, including primary production (e.g., Liang et al. 2016). In this very active field of research, the statement that tree diversity can improve “forest ecosystem function and (associated) services” has become very common. However, the concepts of ecosystem function and ecosystem services are often confused, even though they are different in terms of their definition and relevance to scientists and managers. Whereas “function” is an ecosystem-centred concept, “ecosystem service” is human-centred (see Box 1 for definitions and an example). Focusing on function allows scientists to understand how changes in forest biodiversity can modify the key ecological processes that are driving the functioning, integrity or maintenance of forest ecosystems. Given the linkages and relationships between ecosystem functions and services, forest managers or policy makers may use such information to predict how biodiversity management or enhancement can affect the delivery of goods and services beneficial to the economy and to human well-being.
Tree diversity effects on biomass production
Productivity is often higher in mixtures than in monocultures, and this effect can increase with tree-species richness (Forrester and Bauhus 2016; Liang et al. 2016). A recent global meta-analysis of mixture-monoculture comparisons found that the productivity of mixtures was, on average, 26.5% greater than the mean of the respective monocultures (i.e., overyielding) and 9.8% greater than the most productive of the respective monocultures (i.e., transgressive overyielding) (this excludes very young mixtures where the effects were smaller) (Gritti et al., cited in Pretzsch and Forrester 2017). However, while productivity has often been found to increase along gradients of increasing tree-species richness, there are also instances where there is no increase, or even a decrease in productivity (Forrester and Bauhus 2016). Even when there is an increase in growth with increasing tree-species richness, it does not mean that the mixtures are always more productive than all the monocultures; it only indicates that the mean productivity of a given diversity level is greater than the mean productivity of a lower diversity level, such as the monocultures. Therefore increasing tree-species richness within a given stand will not necessarily result in greater productivity. This would require that the species interact in complementary ways, and therefore when considering specific stands (as opposed to regional patterns), species identity is likely to be more important to consider than species diversity per se.
Positive mixing effects, or complementarity effects, can result from many different processes and species interactions. These have been the subject of several reviews (Kelty 1992; Richards et al. 2010; Forrester and Bauhus 2016) and can be described as nutrient-related, water-related or light-related interactions in addition to biotic interactions (e.g., reduced pest damage) (Forrester and Bauhus 2016). Examples of nutrient-related processes are symbiotic nitrogen fixation and accelerated rates of nutrient cycling, or where the abundance and composition of mycorrhizae change under mixtures leading to greater the uptake of different forms of a given nutrient (Lovelock and Ewel 2005; Richards et al. 2010). Water-related interactions include differences in rainfall interception by the canopy, transpiration, water infiltration or storage in the O horizon and hydraulic redistribution. Light-related interactions include differences in crown architecture and canopy structure that influence light absorption, or differences in physiology or phenology that influence the efficiency of light use and the timing of light absorption.
Forests as Ecosystem Services
Expected Changes
As climate change intensifies, scientific research has provided "established but incomplete evidence that changes being made in ecosystems [which may be partially driven by climate change] are increasing the likelihood of nonlinear changes in ecosystems (including accelerating, abrupt, and potentially irreversible changes)" (3).
Recent research suggests that the majority of ecosystem services will be negatively impacted as temperature increases; while a 2°C (3.6° F) rise may benefit some ecosystem service values slightly, a 4.5° C (8.1°F) increase will be very disruptive to almost all ecosystem service values (4).
In many places, climate change impacts are coupled with other ecological drivers, such as land-use change, and scientific research is important in helping us to isolate variables and understand implications. For example, in 2009, the nation’s forests sequestered approximately 235 million tons of carbon, an amount equivalent to roughly 16% of US annual carbon dioxide emissions (or approximately 13% of US annual greenhouse gas emissions).
Forest Ecosystem restoration?
A forest ecosystem extends vertically upward enveloping forest canopies and downward to the lowest soil layers affected by roots and biotic processes. All living organisms in the forests depend on each other, but flora and fauna are also influenced by abiotic elements like light, wind and water. They are open systems in the sense that they exchange energy and materials with other systems, including adjacent forests, aquatic ecosystems, and the atmosphere which is essential for their sustenance. Forest lands are not equally distributed around the world, with only 5 countries (Russia, Brazil, Canada, USA and China) accounting for more than 50% of the world’s forest land. Various types of forest systems according to a publication by UNEP, include evergreen, deciduous, tree & shrub cover, fresh/brackish water, saline water and mixed forest.
Why are Forest Ecosystems important?
Forests are the most diverse ecosystems, housing the vast majority of the world’s terrestrial species. They provide shelter to 80% of amphibians, 75% of birds, and 65% of mammals. They play an important role in climate regulation by carbon sequestration, reducing flooding, preventing land degradation & desertification while reducing the risks of natural disasters. Along with several ecological benefits, forest ecosystems also provide socio-economic benefits to local communities and the economy. In the year 2019, the world traded more than 750 billion USD worth of forestry products and provided for about 86 million green jobs. The resilience of human food systems and their capacity to adapt to future change depends broadly on this biodiversity.
Damage done to the forest ecosystem
In the early 1900s, nearly 48% of the earth’s land was covered with forests, compared to 31% as of 2020. However, just since the 1990s the forest cover has shrunk significantly by about 420 million hectares. Conversion of forest land for agricultural and pastoral purposes is the biggest reason for deforestation. More than 1400 out of 60065 tree species across the planet are assessed as critically endangered and in urgent need of conservation action. Forest and rangeland degradation has resulted in soil erosion, damage to watershed areas, loss of biodiversity and loss of valuable ecosystem services. The only silver lining is that in the last five years, the rate of deforestation has decreased to 10 million hectares p.a. from 16 million hectares p.a. in the 1990s. Restorative activities have also decreased the net loss of forest area from 7.8 million hectares p.a. in the 1990s to 4.7 million hectares p.a. during the past decade. While that is a good start, it’s far from the ideal restoration goal.
Restoration measures for the forest ecosystem
Afforestation and reforestation take center stage when it comes to forest ecosystem restoration. This requires focus on engaging the forest dwellers, often indigenous population. Ensuring that indigenous and local communities have stewardship of their land, and providing them with support, is key to the success of forest restoration activities and to safeguarding the rights of community members. A planned afforestation effort needs suitable genetic variations of trees for survival, good growth and viability in the long term. Genetic variation also enhances populations’ resistance against acute and chronic stressors, such as pests and diseases, and this helps counter the effects of global warming. Additionally,? management of invasive species (ones like Lantana camara terrorize the Indian forests) and replenishing groundwater levels contribute to protecting existing forests.
European forest ecosystems
The importance of forests with regard to supporting human needs is considerable. Forests are rich in biodiversity and valuable for recreation, water regulation and soil protection. As well as for providing timber and other non-wood forest products, forests are important for mitigating climate change and for the renewable energy sector. Forest ecosystems are exposed to a range of environmental, economic and social pressures that challenge their sustainability. The forest sector is influenced by the unprecedented pressures arising from climate change and the growing demands of society on natural resources. These changes place enormous pressure on the health and resilience of forest ecosystems and affect biodiversity and human well-being. Human activities and management have modified more than 96 % of Europe's forests.
Healthy and diverse forest ecosystems?
Old-growth and natural forests are particularly valuable for biodiversity (including the genetic variety) and carbon storage. Forests and other wooded land cover more than 40 % of the total land surface in the European Environment Agency (EEA) region (33 member countries and six cooperating countries — the EEA-39). Forest extent and growing stock are still increasing. However, some countries in northern and south-western Europe are experiencing a decline in forested areas. There is a great diversity of forest habitats across Europe, with 81 different habitat types identified according to the Habitats Directive. The tree species composition of managed forests in the EEA region is becoming more diverse, with an increasing variety of broadleaved and coniferous tree species. Forestry in Europe is, to a large extent, based on native tree species. However, some countries have a significant share of introduced forest tree species. Nonetheless, invasive alien species still cover only 0.5 % of the total forest area in Europe. For the 2007–2012 period, the 27 European Union (EU) Member States reported that only 26 % of forest species and 15 % of forest habitats of European interest, as listed in the Habitats Directive, were in 'favourable conservation status'. According to recent reports by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 27 % of mammals, 10 % of reptiles and 8 % of amphibians linked to forest ecosystems are considered to be under threat of extinction within the EU.
Are Europe's forests sustainably managed??
Sustainable forest management (SFM) is the global forestry sector's response to the need for sustainable development. SFM is a strategic goal that encompasses social, economic and environmental dimensions.
Most evidence suggests that the European forestry sector does practice SFM; however, there are some causes for concern.
? More than 95 % of the forests in the EEA region are under management and the degree of human intervention is controlled. Around 10 % of these are managed intensively as plantations. The principles of SFM are widely applied to Europe's forests.
? The better management of forests would involve the adoption of further adaptive management approaches that integrate research and the monitoring of outcomes to improve the effectiveness of management interventions. Furthermore, mechanisms should be expanded to compensate those who provide ecosystem services that make the sustainable management of forests a more attractive land-use option.?
? Baseline data are needed to track changes in forest cover and condition. Despite the comprehensiveness of national forest inventories and monitoring across Europe, no systematic and harmonized European-wide forest information is available.?
? The share of forests that are public is less than 40 % of the total forest area in the EEA region. The remaining 60 % of forested area is privately owned. Given this, forest ownership and the importance of the forest sector for the national economy are key factors that affect forest management and, consequently, biodiversity.?
? Research needs to be strengthened in order to identify and enhance the understanding of the main components of the 'drivers, pressures, state, impacts and response' (DPSIR) analytical framework. Focus should be on the complex interactions between these drivers of change and their direct and indirect repercussions on forest ecosystems and their services to society.?
? The increasing demand for forest products and forest-based biomass energy creates new production and employment opportunities. Capturing these opportunities requires intersectoral coordination, and landscape-scale planning and development approaches that simultaneously focus on different economic activities and on social and environmental values.?
Forests and Water Valuation and payments for forest ecosystem services
?Overharvesting, habitat degradation, climate change and pollution all pose major threats to forests and the ecosystem services they provide. Forests provide important watershed services, such as water purification, surface flow regulation and erosion control, as reflected in targets 6.6 and 15.1 for SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation) and SDG 15 (life on land). Payments for ecosystem services (PES) schemes in general, and payments for watershed services (PWS) schemes in particular, provide a mechanism for enhancing the services that forests provide. PES rely on an economic valuation of non-marketed services, such as carbon sequestration and water provision by forests. These schemes make us aware of what is at stake when ecosystems are degraded, and of the costs associated with replacing those services. While the importance of ecosystem services provided by forests are often acknowledged, the economic values of these services remain hard to assess and difficult to monetize. Consequently, their values are often overlooked in economic and political decisions, despite their importance to human well-being and environmental sustainability. The challenge we now face is how to value and properly consider these services in decision-making and ensure sustainable forest management
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