Various biomaterial characterization techniques can be used for dental restorations, depending on the material and property of interest. For example, microscopy uses optical, scanning electron, or transmission electron microscopes to observe the surface and internal features of dental materials at different magnifications. This can help identify morphology, texture, porosity, cracks, defects, and phases of materials and their interfaces with oral tissues. Spectroscopy uses X-rays, infrared, or ultraviolet rays to measure chemical bonds and elements of dental materials. This can help determine composition, purity, crystallinity, and oxidation state of materials and their interactions with oral fluids and bacteria. Mechanical testing applies tensile, compressive, bending, or impact forces to evaluate mechanical properties such as strength, stiffness, toughness, hardness, and fatigue resistance. Thermal analysis uses temperature changes like heating, cooling, or melting to measure thermal properties such as thermal expansion, contraction, transition, and stability. Biocompatibility assessment uses biological tests like cell culture, animal models or clinical trials to measure the biological response of dental materials and their effects on oral tissues and functions. This helps evaluate safety, toxicity, inflammation, infection and healing potential of materials and their influence on the oral microbiome and immune system.