How do you organize and present your argument for maximum impact?

The purpose of argument is not always to convince or "win". Argument can also help: ● Clarify thoughts; ● Consider and better understand other people's ideas; ● Negotiate; ● Entertain; or ● Show the validity (or invalidity) of an idea. Audience choice and awareness is perhaps the most important of making an effective argument. When analyzing your audience you will want to know their: ● Demographics (age, marital status, income, etc.); ● Knowledge baseline; ● Thoughts about what is important and unimportant; ● Educational level; ● Biases; and ● Political affiliations. From this information, think about: ● Factual information your audience may need to be better informed on the topic; and ● How the audience may best accept your argument.

The classical way of organizing an argument uses uses appeals to logic (logos), emotion (pathos), and ethics (ethos). The organization of the classic logical argument is: 1. Introduce the issue. 2. Provide background facts (to give your audience knowledge). 3. State your conclusion (the proposition with which you want the audience to agree). 4. Provide factual proof supporting the proposition. (This is logic (logos).) 5. Address counterarguments and explain why your position is more logical. (Another application of logic (logos).) 6. Summarize the argument while also appealing to the audience's emotions (pathos) and values (ethos). Other methods of organizing logical arguments include the Toulmin method and the Rogerian method.

One way or organizing a logical argument is the Rogerian method (named for psychotherapist Carl Rogers). The Rogerian method is most commonly used when you want to find common ground with your audience. The Rogerian method makes your argument appear to be a reasonable compromise and it makes you seem empathetic. The Rogerian method's basic format is: ● Issue introduction (objectively introduce the topic as a "problem" to solved with the audience). ● Introduce the opposing view. ● Acknowledge the opposing view's validity under certain circumstances. ● Explain your position and contexts in which your position is valid. ● State why the audience would benefit from adopting your position.

A modern way or organizing an argument is the ?????????????? ????????????, devised by Stephen Toulmin and described in ?????? ???????? ???? ???????????????? (1958). The steps are: ● State your claim. (Tell the audience your main argument.) ● Provide supporting factual data. (This is referred to us the "grounds".) ● Explain why your data supports your claim. (A "warrant" that creates a "bridge" from the data to the claim.) ● State additional reasons validating your argument. (This is the "backing" for the "warrant".) ● Anticipate counterclaims. ● Rebut the anticipated counterclaims. (Use the "grounds", "warrant" and "bridge" strategies to state a logical rebuttal.)

There are many systems to assess the quality of evidence. One is the "evidence pyramid", which grades from weakest to strongest: ● Case reports and opinions ● Animal trials ● Cross-sectional studies ● Case control studies ● Cohort studies ● Randomized controlled trials ● Meta analyses and systematic reviews Cochrane, which publishes about evidence-based medical treatments, downgrades evidence quality for: ● Risk of bias; ● Inconsistency; ● Indirectness; ● Imprecision; and ● Publication bias (outcome biases decision to publish). The CRAAP test is used for "source criticism", the process of evaluating information, looks at: ● Currency (recency) ● Relevance ● Authority (trustworthiness) ● Accuracy ● Purpose (teaching, selling, etc.)

Precise language is critically important to persuasion through argument. When arguing, each factual statement should be provable true or false by extrinsic sources. Vague or imprecise sentences, from a logical perspective, cannot be either true or false. For example: "My neighbor is short." is vague because there is no clear way to know what height would be considered "short." "My neighbor is 5'2" tall." is more precise and can be proven true or false. One can then provide additional facts (also to be proven true or false) to support that 5'2" is "short" in a certain context. Also pay attention to syntax (how words are arranged in a sentence). Changing word order can add clarity or change the meaning of a sentence.

There are 4 basic rhetorical modes: ● Narration (storytelling) ● Description (causing the listener to visualize) ● Exposition (explaining) ● Argumentation (encouraging the listener to adopt an idea) There are 5 communication modes: ● Visual (images) ● Linguistic (words - choice, delivery, organization, etc.) ● Spatial (how the physical area is arranged (classroom)) ● Gestural (body movements, facial expressions) ● Aural (sound) Mediums of communication include: ● In person ● Virtual remote (webinars) ● Written (blog, paper) ● Social media (combining written and verbal) Research and combine the rhetorical and communicative modes with the communication mediums' conventions to present your argument for maximum impact.

Steps in refining an argument can include: ● Having a peer with knowledge on the topic review your argument and provide feedback. ● Critically reading your argument to make sure: ?? The thesis is strong; ?? The logic is structurally sound; ?? There are no logical fallacies; ?? The argument flows well from beginning to end; and ?? The voice and tone are appropriate for the intended audience. ● Post a draft outline and ask for feedback. ● Play "Devil's Advocate" and try to counter your own thesis. ● Check the sources you cite to make sure: ?? The source material supports your factual assertions you have made. ?? The sources you have cited are current. ?? The sources you have cited are relevant.

Revising and refining an argument is essential to its effectiveness. This involves identifying and correcting flaws, gaps and inconsistencies. In addition, it is crucial to seek external feedback to enrich the point of view presented. Integrating suggestions and constructive criticism improves the persuasiveness and credibility of the argument. Proofreading also ensures clarity and cohesion, making it easier for the audience to understand. In short, this process finalises the argument, ensuring that it reaches its full potential, creating impact and being persuasive.

When "arguing" to individuals or groups of diverse backgrounds and knowledge (like juries), ???????????????????????? is often the best way to persuade. Nobody likes to be told how or what to believe. Through narrative, storytelling allows the jury to reach their own conclusion (feeling) about what a just outcome would be. This is, in part, because stories, like human reasoning, are not perfectly linear. When speaking with people who may not be in the same profession as you, it is often best to make your narrative about people, not facts or data. There are many storytelling structures that can be adapted for your specific circumstance.