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How can you analyze the productivity of morphological processes?

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Morphological processes are the ways that words are formed or modified by adding or changing smaller units of meaning, called morphemes. For example, adding the suffix -s to a noun makes it plural, or adding the prefix un- to an adjective makes it negative. But not all morphological processes are equally productive, meaning that they can apply to new or existing words without restrictions or exceptions. How can you analyze the productivity of morphological processes in linguistics? In this article, you will learn about some criteria and methods that can help you answer this question.

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Aleksandra Przegalinska

Associate Professor and Vice Rector for Innovations and AI @Kozminski University, Harvard CLJE Senior Research…

1 Productivity and gradience

Productivity is not a binary concept, but a matter of degree. Some morphological processes are more productive than others, depending on how widely and freely they can be used. For example, the suffix -er can form agent nouns from verbs (e.g. teacher, writer, runner), but it cannot apply to all verbs (e.g. *sleeper, *laugher, *flyer). The suffix -ness can form abstract nouns from adjectives (e.g. happiness, kindness, darkness), but it also has some limitations (e.g. *redness, *loudness, *biggness). To measure the productivity of a morphological process, you can use quantitative or qualitative criteria, such as frequency, transparency, regularity, and creativity.

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Aleksandra Przegalinska

Associate Professor and Vice Rector for Innovations and AI @Kozminski University, Harvard CLJE Senior Research Associate & CampusAI Scientific Advisor, Member of the Scientific Board @European University Institute
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Identify Morphological Processes: Determine which morphological processes are used in the language, such as derivation, compounding, and inflection. Collect Data: Gather a corpus of text from the language you are studying. This should be a large and representative sample that includes a variety of texts (books, articles, spoken language transcripts, etc.). Analyze Morpheme Usage: Look for patterns in how morphemes are used. For instance, observe which suffixes or prefixes are most common, and in what contexts they appear. Frequency Analysis: Measure how frequently certain morphological processes occur. The more frequently a process is used, the more productive it is considered to be.

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2 Frequency and transparency

Frequency is the number of times a morphological process occurs in a given corpus or language sample. It can indicate how common or preferred a process is, but it does not necessarily reflect its productivity. For example, the suffix -ize can form verbs from nouns or adjectives (e.g. realize, modernize, categorize), but it is less frequent than the suffix -ate (e.g. activate, decorate, relate). However, -ize is more productive than -ate, because it can apply to more words and create new ones (e.g. veganize, Googleize, Trumpize). Transparency is the degree of semantic and phonological similarity between the base word and the derived word. It can show how predictable or consistent a process is, but it does not always correspond to its productivity. For example, the suffix -ly can form adverbs from adjectives (e.g. quickly, softly, happily), but it is less transparent than the suffix -ish (e.g. reddish, childish, foolish). However, -ly is more productive than -ish, because it can apply to more words and create new ones (e.g. randomly, badly, ironically).

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3 Regularity and creativity

Regularity is the extent to which a morphological process follows rules or patterns that can be generalized or applied to other words. It can reveal how systematic or flexible a process is, but it does not account for its productivity. For example, the suffix -able can form adjectives from verbs (e.g. readable, writable, breakable), but it is less regular than the suffix -ed (e.g. readed, writed, breaked). However, -able is more productive than -ed, because it can apply to more words and create new ones (e.g. tweetable, Googleable, unfriendable). Creativity is the ability to use a morphological process to coin new words or expressions that are novel or humorous. It can demonstrate how innovative or expressive a process is, but it does not measure its productivity. For example, the prefix re- can form verbs that indicate repetition or reversal (e.g. redo, rewrite, return), but it is less creative than the prefix un- (e.g. unplug, unmask, unfollow). However, re- is more productive than un-, because it can apply to more words and create new ones (e.g. rebrand, rewire, reframe).

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4 Here’s what else to consider

This is a space to share examples, stories, or insights that don’t fit into any of the previous sections. What else would you like to add?

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How can you analyze the productivity of morphological processes?

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1 Productivity and gradience

2 Frequency and transparency

3 Regularity and creativity

4 Here’s what else to consider

Linguistics

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