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What are the most common methods for synthesizing nanoparticles?

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Nanoparticles are tiny particles that have at least one dimension between 1 and 100 nanometers (nm). They have unique physical and chemical properties that make them useful for various applications in medicine, electronics, catalysis, and more. However, synthesizing nanoparticles is not a trivial task, as it requires precise control over the size, shape, composition, and distribution of the particles. In this article, you will learn about some of the most common methods for synthesizing nanoparticles and their advantages and disadvantages.

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Azarmidokht G. Shirazi

Research Fellow, Future Biomanufacturing Research Hub, Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of…
Alokmay Datta

Emeritus Scientist at University of Calcutta

1 Top-down methods

Top-down methods involve breaking down larger materials into smaller ones using physical or chemical processes. For example, you can use mechanical milling, laser ablation, or ion sputtering to reduce the size of solid materials into nanoparticles. Alternatively, you can use etching, lithography, or templating to create patterns or structures of nanoparticles on a surface. Top-down methods are generally fast and scalable, but they may produce irregular shapes, defects, or impurities in the nanoparticles.

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Azarmidokht G. Shirazi

Research Fellow, Future Biomanufacturing Research Hub, Manchester Institute of Biotechnology, University of Manchester
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Common methods include chemical precipitation, sol-gel, mechanical milling, CVD, electrodeposition, green synthesis, microemulsion, hydrothermal synthesis, gas-phase methods, and ball milling. Chemical precipitation: mixing a precursor solution with a reducing agent. Sol-gel transforms a solution into a gel and then a solid. Mechanical milling grinds bulk materials into nanoparticles. CVD uses a precursor vapor to form nanoparticles. Electrodeposition deposits metal ions with an electric current. Green synthesis employs natural extracts or microorganisms. Microemulsion uses a surfactant-stabilized system. Hydrothermal synthesis occurs in high-temperature water. Gas-phase methods and ball milling are also common.

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John Kestell Ph.D.

physical chemistry, instrumentation, analytical chemistry
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During my post doc, one of our collaborators was making zeolite mono and bilayers by melting the bulk zeolites in a polymer, then extruding the polymer through this screw mechanism. And finally, roasting away the polymer in oxygen. I thought that was a neat approach.

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2 Bottom-up methods

Bottom-up methods involve building up nanoparticles from smaller units using chemical reactions or self-assembly. For example, you can use precipitation, sol-gel, hydrothermal, or microwave methods to form nanoparticles from solutions of metal salts or organic precursors. Alternatively, you can use colloidal, emulsion, or micellar methods to form nanoparticles from dispersed phases of metals, polymers, or surfactants. Bottom-up methods are generally more versatile and precise, but they may require complex conditions, multiple steps, or post-synthesis treatments.

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Alokmay Datta

Emeritus Scientist at University of Calcutta
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A standard method is to reduce a salt in solution to a metal or a cation-anion pair that will combine to form the required binary ceramic or semiconductor. The process is stopped by another dissolved compound that caps the product to keep it to nanosize.

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3 Hybrid methods

Hybrid methods involve combining top-down and bottom-up methods to achieve the best of both worlds. For example, you can use seed-mediated growth, where you first synthesize nanoparticles by a bottom-up method and then use them as seeds to grow larger or more complex nanoparticles by another bottom-up method. Alternatively, you can use surface modification, where you first synthesize nanoparticles by a top-down method and then coat them with a layer of another material by a bottom-up method. Hybrid methods are generally more flexible and customizable, but they may increase the cost and complexity of the synthesis.

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4 Biological methods

Biological methods involve using living organisms or biomolecules to synthesize nanoparticles. For example, you can use bacteria, fungi, algae, or plants to produce nanoparticles from metal ions or organic compounds. Alternatively, you can use proteins, enzymes, peptides, or DNA to catalyze or template the formation of nanoparticles. Biological methods are generally more eco-friendly and biocompatible, but they may have low yield, slow rate, or limited stability.

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5 Computational methods

Computational methods involve using mathematical models and computer simulations to design and optimize the synthesis of nanoparticles. For example, you can use molecular dynamics, density functional theory, or machine learning to predict the structure, properties, and behavior of nanoparticles under different conditions. Alternatively, you can use inverse design, genetic algorithms, or artificial neural networks to find the optimal parameters for the synthesis of desired nanoparticles. Computational methods are generally more efficient and innovative, but they may require high computational power, data, and validation.

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6 Here’s what else to consider

This is a space to share examples, stories, or insights that don’t fit into any of the previous sections. What else would you like to add?

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What are the most common methods for synthesizing nanoparticles?

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1 Top-down methods

2 Bottom-up methods

3 Hybrid methods

4 Biological methods

5 Computational methods

6 Here’s what else to consider

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